Prevalence of Eimeria spp. in Sows at Piglet-producing Farms in Germany

The Effects of Coriandrum sativum L. and Cucurbita pepo L. against Gastrointestinal Parasites in Swine: An In Vivo Study

Parasitic diseases are responsible for substantial losses in reproduction and productivity in swine, creating a major impairment to efficient and profitable livestock management. The use of phytotherapeutic remedies has notably increased over the past decade due to their bioavailability, decreased toxicity, non-polluting nature, and to some extent due to their antiparasitic effect. The aim of this study was to evaluate the antiparasitic potential of Cucurbita pepo L. and Coriandrum sativum L. against protozoa and nematodes found in swine. The samples were collected from weaners, fatteners, and sows and examined via flotation (Willis and McMaster), active sedimentation, Ziehl-Neelsen staining as modified by Henricksen, a modified Blagg method, and eggs/oocyst culture. The parasite species detected were Ascaris suum, Trichuris suis, Oesophagostomum spp., Balantioides coli (syn. Balantidium coli), Eimeria spp., and Cryptosporidium spp., depending on age category. A dose of 500 mg/kg bw/day of C. pepo and 170 mg/kg bw/day of C. sativum powders, administered for ten consecutive days, demonstrated a pronounced anthelmintic (pumpkin) and antiprotozoal (coriander) effect against the aforementioned parasites. Future studies are required to ascertain the optimal dose that maximizes their antiparasitic effectiveness. The current study represents the first Romanian report on the in vivo antiparasitic activity of these two plants tested on digestive parasites in swine.

The In Vitro Anticoccidial Activity of Some Herbal Extracts against Eimeria spp. Oocysts Isolated from Piglets

Coccidiosis in pigs seldom results in important economic losses. However, it can influence growth rates in weaners and it is an important hygiene indicator in swine farms. Certain herbs, along with their extracts, have been used over the course of history in traditional medicine. The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro anticoccidial effects of Allium sativum L. (garlic), Artemisia absinthium L. (wormwood), Coriandrum sativum L. (coriander), Cucurbita pepo L. (pumpkin), Satureja hortensis L. (summer savory), and Calendula officinalis L. (marigold) against Eimeria suis and Eimeria debliecki oocysts. The stock solution of oocysts (58% E. suis + 42% E. debliecki) was incubated for three days, before adding the tested solutions. The unsporulated Eimeria spp. oocysts were then placed in a 3 mL well plate and incubated for 96 h at 27 °C, in a suspension containing serial dilutions of alcoholic plant extracts (5%, 2.5%, 1.25%, 0.625%, and 0.312%). The percentage of sporulated and destroyed oocysts was recorded every 24 h for 96 h. All extracts had a good in vitro anticoccidial effect against oocysts of Eimeria spp. compared with the control groups. Oocyst sporulation was significantly (p = 0.05) inhibited by the 5% marigold extract (3.6% sporulated oocysts). The same extract had the highest lytic effect on oocysts (65.2% destroyed oocysts). Our results prove that the most effective alcoholic plant extract is the marigold extract, followed, in order of efficiency, by the wormwood, coriander, garlic, pumpkin, and summer savory extracts. This study represents a preliminary contribution for establishing a new generation of natural disinfectants aimed at destroying Eimeria oocysts in the context of swine contamination.

Prevalence and diversity of Eimeria spp. in free-range chickens in northeastern Brazil

In tropical regions, family farming is a form of production and work that is highly present in rural areas. Because the production system for free-range chickens has a low level of technification, it frequently presents massive infection by coccidia. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence and diversity of Eimeria species in free-range chickens in northeastern Brazil. Fecal analyses were carried out using materials collected from 100 farms, belonging to 10 different municipalities. The sample from each farm was composed of five stool samples collected from different animals. Coproparasitological analyses were performed and, in each positive sample, photomicrographs of 20 oocysts were used for morphological identification of coccidia. The presence of Eimeria spp. was detected in 59% (59/100) of the farms analyzed. Species identification was performed through morphometric analysis of 1,180 sporulated oocysts. The following eight species of Eimeria spp. were found, in decreasing order of prevalence: Eimeria necatrix (25%), Eimeria mitis (18.3%), Eimeria mivati (17.3%), Eimeria tenella (12.4%), Eimeria brunetti (9.9%), Eimeria acervulina (9.1%), Eimeria praecox (4.8%) and Eimeria maxima (3.2%). The prevalence and diversity of Eimeria spp. on farms producing backyard chickens in the semiarid region of Brazil were high, especially the diversity of species. Changing the management, with the adoption of sanitary measures, may be effective in reducing the high prevalence of coccidia on the farms studied.

The strong influence of management factors on coccidian infections in smallholder pig farms and the first molecular identification of Cystoisospora suis in Myanmar

A cross-sectional study was conducted to investigate coccidian infection and associated factors in smallholder pigs, and to identify Cystoisospora oocysts by PCR. A total of 500 pig faecal samples from 330 smallholder farms were collected in Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar. The faecal flotation method was used to identify Eimeria and Cystoisospora species, and oocyst counts per gram (OPG) of faeces were recorded. Oocysts were differentiated after sporulation. Oocyst DNA was subjected to ITS1-targeted Cystoisospora-specific PCR. The overall coccidian oocyst detection rate by microscopic was 89.0% (445/500). Among the studied samples, 74.0% (370/500) and 70.6% (353/500), were found to be positive with Eimeria spp. and Cystoisospora suis oocysts, respectively. The sequences of C. suis detected were 100% identical to those of C. suis reported from Japan, and had 99.5% resemblance to sequences from Australia and China. Weaner pigs showed the significantly highest (p < 0.05) OPG when compared to other age groups. The highest intensity of coccidian infection (p < 0.05) was found in pigs fed local feed, pigs raised on earthen floors and pigs under poor hygienic conditions. Factors such as age, breed, feed type, and housing floors were found to be significantly associated with coccidian infection (p < 0.05). Age, as well as management factors including floor type, feed type, and hygiene practices on the farm, had a strong influence on the occurrence of coccidian infection in pigs. This is the first study in Myanmar on coccidian infection in pigs and molecular detection of C. suis.

Diversity of enteric coccidia in pigs from the Paraíba Semiarid Region of Northeastern Brazil

There is great diversity in swine coccidia, which are responsible for causing intestinal disorders ranging from sporadic diarrhea to severe cases of hemorrhagic enteritis. Thus, determining the species of coccidia that affect the animals of a region and associating them with the characteristics of the farms become extremely important. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of coccidia parasites in pigs reared in a family farming production system in the Semiarid Region of the State of Paraíba, Northeast Brazil. Fecal samples for analysis were collected from 187 pigs on 51 farms. For morphological analysis, 1,590 sporulated oocysts were used. The prevalence of oocysts in fecal samples was 56.6% (106/187). The most prevalent species were Eimeria suis (21.9%), followed by Eimeria neodebliecki (16.6%), Eimeria perminuta (14.9%), Eimeria polita (12.8%), Eimeria debliecki (10.6%), Eimeria porci (10.1%), Cystoisospora suis (3.7%), Eimeria scabra (1.6%) and Eimeria cerdonis (0.5%). It can be concluded that pigs from the Semiarid Region of the State of Paraíba were parasitized by a diversity of coccidia species, mainly of the genus Eimeria, and predominantly presented with mixed infections occurring in the subclinical form.

Prevalence of Eimeria spp. in calves from dairy farms in northern Paraná state, Brazil

Abstract Bovine coccidiosis is a disease of major importance in cattle herds across the world. The disorder mainly affects young calves, and E. bovis and E. zuernii are considered the most pathogenic species of the genus, however, E. alabamensis have been described in grazing calves. In this study, the prevalence of Eimeria spp. was evaluated in calves on dairy farms in the northern region of the state of Paraná, Brazil. Four hundred calves on 44 dairy farms were tested for the presence of coccidian oocysts. The positives were re-examined and the oocysts were morphometrically analyzed for species identification. All the farms were contaminated and 205 animals (51.25%) presented Eimeria spp. oocysts. Among these, 146 animals (71.22%) were co-infected by two or more species of coccidia. Ten species of Eimeria were identified: E. bovis (in 30.25% of the positive samples), E. alabamensis (26.75%), E. zuernii (22.00%), E. ellipsoidalis (18.50%), E. auburnensis (13.75%), E. canadensis (8.00%), E. cylindrica (7.25%), E. subspherica (5.00%), E. bukidnonensis (3.00%) and E. brasiliensis (0.75%). This study demonstrates the high prevalence of Eimeria spp. in the northern region of Paraná, Brazil, and detection for the first time in our region the pathogenic species E. alabamensis.

W A A V P guideline for evaluating the efficacy of anticoccidials in mammals (pigs, dogs, cattle, sheep)

This guideline is intended as an aid in the design, implementation and interpretation of studies for the assessment of drug efficacy against Eimeria in cattle and sheep, Cystoisospora in pigs and dogs, and Cryptosporidium in cattle. It deals with the most important aspects of how to conduct both experimental and field studies for dose determination, dose confirmation and assessment of field effectiveness. Also, guidance on the selection of animals, diagnostic techniques, statistical evaluation and methods for the preparation, maintenance and use of parasites is provided. The specific management conditions that may influence the course of natural infections and consequently determine treatment schemes are mentioned and suggestions for best practice in sampling and evaluation of data prior to conducting of efficacy studies are given. The guideline is also intended to assist investigators in carrying out specific studies, provide relevant information for registration authorities involved in the decision-making process, assist in the approval of anticoccidial drugs in the target species, and facilitate the world-wide adoption of standard procedures. Although currently not implemented, issues of drug resistance testing and alternative methods for drug testing are also discussed as future issues in drug testing against mammalian coccidia.

Experimentally confirmed toltrazuril resistance in a field isolate of Cystoisospora suis

Background

Constant treatment regimens with toltrazuril against Cystoisospora suis infection in piglets are being applied in the intensive production systems for the last two decades, but the possibility of resistance development has not been addressed so far despite limited availability of treatment alternatives. Recently, a pig producer in The Netherlands who routinely used toltrazuril complained about diarrhea in suckling piglets in the absence of bacterial and viral pathogens, and oocysts of C. suis could be isolated from feces of affected litters.

Methods

Piglets from two litters were infected with a field isolate of C. suis, Holland-I, and treated with 0 (Holl-Ctrl), 20 (Holl-20) or 30 (Holl-30) mg/kg of body weight (BW) of toltrazuril (Baycox®). The efficacy of toltrazuril was measured by assessment of oocyst excretion, fecal consistency and BW gain. A separate litter was infected with a toltrazuril-susceptible strain of C. suis, Wien-I, and treated with 0 (Wien-Ctrl) or 20 (Wien-20) mg/kg BW of toltrazuril for comparison.

Results

Treatment with the recommended (20 mg/kg) dose of toltrazuril completely suppressed oocyst shedding and diarrhea in group Wien-20. The prevalence of oocyst excretion was 100% in the groups infected with Holland-I and 80% in the group Wien-Ctrl. Most days with diarrhea were observed in group Holl-20 with an average of 6.40%, followed by 5.71% in Wien-Ctrl, while in Holl-Ctrl and Holl-30 diarrhea was only seen in 1.79% of the samples (n = 14/piglet). Oocyst excretion, fecal consistency and BW gain did not differ significantly among groups infected with Holland-I, indicating loss of efficacy to toltrazuril.

Conclusion

Experimental infections and treatment confirmed toltrazuril resistance against the field isolate even at increased dosage. Such isolates are a potential threat to pig production as no other effective and economically sustainable alternative treatment is currently available. In the absence of a standardized protocol for resistance testing in C. suis, regular parasitological examination and, if possible, experimental confirmation should be considered to evaluate the extent and consequences of toltrazuril resistance.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-017-2257-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Case-control study of pathogens involved in piglet diarrhea

Background

Diarrhea in piglets directly affects commercial swine production. The disease results from the interaction of pathogens with the host immune system and is also affected by management procedures. Several pathogenic agents such as Campylobacter spp., Clostridium perfringens, Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., group A rotavirus (RV-A), coronaviruses (transmissible gastroenteritis virus; porcine epidemic diarrhea virus), as well as nematode and protozoan parasites, can be associated with disease cases.

Results

All bacterial, viral, protozoan, and parasitic agents here investigated, with the exception of Salmonella spp. as well as both coronaviruses, were detected in varying proportions in piglet fecal samples, and positive animals were equally distributed between case and control groups. A statistically significant difference between case and control groups was found only for Cystoisospora suis (p = 0.034) and Eimeria spp. (p = 0.047). When co-infections were evaluated, a statistically significant difference was found only for C. perfringens β2 and C. suis (p = 0.014).

Conclusions

The presence of pathogens in piglets alone does not determine the occurrence of diarrhea episodes. Thus, the indiscriminate use of antibiotic and anthelminthic medication should be re-evaluated. This study also reinforces the importance of laboratory diagnosis and correct interpretation of results as well as the relevance of control and prophylactic measures.

Transfer of Cystoisospora suis-specific colostral antibodies and their correlation with the course of neonatal porcine cystoisosporosis

Cystoisospora suis is the most pathogenic species of coccidia in suckling piglets, affecting them predominantly within their first three weeks of life. The clinical signs of neonatal cystoisosporosis include watery diarrhea and wasting, leading to significant economic losses for the farmer. Since neonatal piglets have an immature immune system, colostral transfer of maternal factors such as immune cells or antibodies is essential for controlling infections at that age. However, the role of C. suis-specific antibodies transferred from the sow to the piglets and possible correlations between antibody levels in the piglets acquired from colostrum with the clinical outcome of disease are currently not understood. To address this issue, 12 non-infected piglets and 14 piglets experimentally infected with C. suis on the third day of life were examined during their first four weeks of life. IgG, IgA, and IgM titers in the blood serum specific for sporozoites and merozoites of C. suis were evaluated, along with oocyst excretion and fecal consistency. Additionally, the antibody content in the colostrum and milk of three mother sows was determined. A transfer of naturally acquired C. suis-specific antibodies from sows to piglets with the colostrum could be demonstrated. Maternal antibodies in piglets' blood sera did not persist for longer than 14-21 days except for IgG which was present in high titers until the end of the study. Within 2-3 weeks after birth the onset of endogenous antibody production was noticed. Titers in blood serum showed a correlation with the severity of diarrhea which was positive for IgG and IgM (possibly due to increased consumption or loss of these antibodies) and negative for IgA. C. suis-specific mucus antibodies isolated from infected and non-infected piglets (n=6/group) on the 28th day of life were present in both groups, showing significantly higher titers of IgA and IgM in infected piglets. Maternally transferred antibodies acquired by natural infections of sows as observed in this study did not provide protection against the clinical manifestation of disease. The level and effect of transferrable maternal factors necessary for protection still need to be elucidated. However, correlations between antibody titers and fecal consistency in the piglets indicate that C. suis-specific antibodies might be useful markers for the expectable clinical severity of cystoisosporosis.

Frequency of species of the genus Eimeria in naturally infected cattle in Southern Bahia, Northeast Brazil

The aim of this study was to determine the presence of species of the genus Eimeria species in naturally infected bovines in Southern Bahia, Northeast Brazil. The study population comprised 117 Zebu crossbred cattle that belonged to 10 dairy herds with extensive or semi-extensive production systems. The modified Gordon and Whitlock technique was used to determine positive samples and number of oocysts per gram of feces. Statistical analyses were performed using the chi-square test with Yates correction and a 95% confidence interval. Thirty-nine cattle (33.33%) were positive, and ten different species were identified in infected animals: E. bovis (24.79%); E. canadensis (8.55%); E. zuernii (6.83%); E. ellipsoidalis (5.99%); E. cylindrica (3.42%); E. auburnensis (3.42%); E. brasiliensis (2.56%); E. bukidnonensis (1.71%); E. alabamensis (0.85%), and E. subspherica (0.85%). Higher parasitism was observed in animals up to one year of age (p = 0.005), but no animal presented clinical signs of the disease. As the presence of clinical eimeriosis was not evidenced and all animals were Zebu crossbred cattle from extensive or semi-extensive production systems, further studies should be conducted to investigate the effects of these factors on disease development.

Prevalence of Isospora suis and Eimeria spp. in suckling piglets and sows in Poland

The aim of this investigation was to determine the prevalence of coccidian infections in suckling piglets and sows in Poland. The research was carried out in 14 out of 16 Polish provinces in the years 2003-2005. The investigation was conducted on three types of farms: large farms (>100 sows), medium farms (25-100 sows) and small farms (<25 sows). Diarrhoea of unweaned piglets was observed on all the examined farms. Overall, 780 litters of suckling piglets from 104 farms and 267 mother sows were examined. The faeces were analyzed with the modified McMaster method. Isopsora suis was found in 217 (27.8%) litters from 70 (66.7%) farms. Eimeria spp. was detected only in 20 (2.6%) litters from 12 (11.5%) farms. On the large farms I. suis infection was detected in 31.7% of litters whereas Eimeria spp. in 1.4% of them. On the medium sized farms I. suis was found in 18.1% of litters and Eimeria spp. in 0.6%. On the small farms I. suis was detected in only 13.2% of litters, whereas Eimeria spp. in as many as 28.9%. I. suis and Eimeria spp. oocysts were found in 18 (6.7%) and 16 (6%) sows respectively. From 72 sows producing I. suis infected piglets only 12 (16.7%) shed I. suis oocysts and as little as 4 (5.6%) shed Eimeria oocysts. In the remaining 56 sows (77.8%) no cases of coccidian infections were detected. The results of this investigation demonstrate the high prevalence of I. suis in suckling piglets on the large swine farms in Poland.

Eimeriosis in cattle: current understanding

This report addresses various aspects of the protozoan parasite Eimeria which contribute to their increasing recognition as important protozoal pathogens in cattle. Among others, questions of parasite biology and epidemiology, its impact on host physiology, and control strategies are dealt with. The tenacious oocysts are found ubiquitously in the environment making an infection of calves and young cattle, the most susceptible age group, almost inevitable. Further development, comprising of asexual multiplication, the merogony, and a subsequent sexual stage, the gamogony, takes place within cells of the small and large intestines, after which numerous unsporulated oocysts are formed and shed with the faeces. Of the more than a dozen species, Eimeria bovis and Eimeria zuernii only are made responsible for severe clinical disease characterized by haemorrhagic diarrhoea with sometimes fatal outcome. To a lesser extent, Eimeria alabamensis also can cause clinical disease. Because of the damage inflicted on the intestinal tissue, the digestive process and overall homeostasis can become severely affected, even with absence of clinical disease, with adverse effects on animal welfare and performance. The consequent economic losses for the cattle industry are thus substantial. Active (species specific) immunity, both humoral and cellular, develops rapidly after first antigen contact, its intensity being dependent on the number of oocysts ingested. However, no absolute protection is achieved and even older animals can excrete oocysts, contributing to a state of endemic stability. For efficient control, exact diagnosis of the Eimeria species involved and the evaluation of animal management and husbandry practices are of utmost importance. Mixed infections are the rule and only an occurrence of pathogenic species, together with clinical symptoms, justifies the assumption of a coccidiosis. Proper hygiene regime and ensuring unfavourable conditions for oocyst survival in the environment (cool and dry, disinfection procedures) will help to reduce infection pressure on the herd. Of the various pharmacological compounds used to treat coccidiosis, those which act against the late developmental stages, administered during prepatency (metaphylactically rather than therapeutically), are currently considered most effective.

Comparative studies of experimental oral inoculation of pigs with Ascaris suum eggs or third stage larvae

This experimental study was designed to compare the acquired resistance in pigs to Ascaris suum eggs following 4-weekly oral immunizations with either 200 A. suum infective eggs or 50 A. suum third stage larvae (L3). The two immunized groups (n = 7) together with an unimmunized control group (n = 7) of pigs were challenged orally with 50 infective A. suum eggs per kilogram bodyweight on day 19 after the last immunization. Seven days post-challenge the group immunized with eggs showed signs of resistance as evidenced by reduced lung larval counts compared with the challenge control group. Such significant resistance was not observed in the L3-immunized group. However, a markedly increased inflammatory liver reaction and white spot formation was demonstrated in the L3-immunized pigs after challenge compared with both control animals and egg-immunized pigs. On the day of challenge only the egg-immunized pigs mounted an anti-Ascaris antibody response both in serum and in lung lavage fluid. Ascaris-antigen induced increased histamine release from peripheral leucocytes following both immunization and challenge could only be demonstrated in the egg-immunized pigs. On day 7 post-challenge local IgA-anti-Ascaris antibodies were further demonstrated in bile of the egg-immunized group and in the small intestine of both immunized groups. In conclusion, oral A. suum egg immunization of pigs induced a significant reduction in lung larval counts upon challenge. In contrast, oral L3 immunization seemed to prime the pigs as observed by the presence of stunted lung larval growth and increased liver reaction post-challenge with A. suum eggs.