Involvement of brain thromboxane A in hypotension induced by haemorrhage in rats

The intermediary role of the central cyclooxygenase / lipoxygenase enzymes in intracerebroventricular injected nesfatin-1-evoked cardiovascular effects in rats

That nesfatin-1 is a neuromodulatory peptide for the cardiovascular system is well documented. Several central receptors have been shown to mediate the cardiovascular effects of nesfatin-1. Immunohistochemistry and Western blot studies showed that nesfatin-1 activated the expression of the central cyclooxygenase (COX) -1, -2 and lipoxygenase (LOX). In addition, microdialysis study showed that nesfatin-1 increased the release of total prostaglandins and leukotrienes from the hypothalamus. The present study investigated whether the central COX and LOX enzymes have a direct mediating role in the MAP and HR responses of nesfatin-1. Intracerebroventricularly administered nesfatin-1 produced dose-dependent pressor and phasic HR responses in normotensive conscious rats Sprague Dawley. Central pretreatment with a COX1/2 inhibitor, ibuprofen, completely blocked the nesfatin-1-induced responses. However, central pretreatment with a nonselective LOX inhibitor, nordihydroguaiaretic acid, partially attenuated the cardiovascular responses induced by nesfatin-1. The results suggest that centrally administered nesfatin-1 activates the central enzymes COX and LOX, which may be involved in the cardiovascular responses as a novel central mechanism for nesfatin-1.

The mediation of central cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase pathways in orexin-induced cardiovascular effects

Previously it was reported that central orexin (OX) and arachidonic acid (AA) signaling pathways played an active role in the control of the cardiovascular system. It was also reported that they have exhibited their cardiovascular control role by using similar central or peripheral mechanisms. However, there has been no study demonstrating the interaction between OX and AA signaling pathways in terms of cardiovascular control. The current study was designed to investigate the possible mediation of the central cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase (LOX) pathways in OX-induced cardiovascular effects in the rats. Intracerebroventricular injection of OX increased blood pressure and heart rate in a dose-dependent manner in normotensive male Sprague Dawley rats. Moreover, the microdialysis study revealed that intracerebroventricular injected OX caused a time-dependent increase in the extracellular total prostaglandin concentrations in the posterior hypothalamus. Interestingly, central pretreatment with a non-selective COX inhibitor, ibuprofen, or a non-selective LOX inhibitor, nordihydroguaiaretic acid, partially reversed pressor and tachycardic cardiovascular responses evoked by central administration of OX. In summary, our findings show that the central treatment with OX causes pressor and tachycardic cardiovascular responses along with an increase in posterior hypothalamic extracellular total prostaglandin concentrations. Furthermore, our results also demonstrate that central COX and LOX pathways mediate, at least in part, centrally administered OX-evoked pressor and tachycardic responses, as well.

Modulation of arachidonic acid-evoked cardiorespiratory effects by the central lipoxygenase pathway

We previously reported that intracerebroventricularly (ICV) injected arachidonic acid (AA) could produce pressor and bradycardic responses on the cardiovascular system and hyperventilation effect on the respiratory system by activating cyclooxygenase (COX). We also demonstrated that centrally injected AA-induced cardiovascular and respiratory responses were mediated by COX-metabolites, such as thromboxane A₂ (TXA₂), prostaglandin (PG) D, PGE, and PGF_2α. Brain tissue is also able to express the lipoxygenase (LOX) enzyme and LOX-induced AA-metabolites. The current study was designed to investigate the possible mediation of the central LOX pathway in AA-induced cardiorespiratory effects in anesthetized rats. Central pretreatment with different doses of a non-selective LOX inhibitor, nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA) (500 and 1000 μg; ICV) partially blocked the AA (0.5 μmol; ICV)-evoked pressor and bradycardic cardiovascular responses in male anesthetized Sprague Dawley rats. Pretreatment with different doses of NDGA (500 and 1000 μg; ICV) also reduced AA-induced hyperventilation responses, with an increase in tidal volume, respiratory rate and minute ventilation, in the rats. Moreover, AA-induced increasing pO₂ and decreasing pCO₂ responses were diminished by central NDGA pretreatment. In summary, our findings show that the central LOX pathway might mediate, at least in part, centrally administered AA-evoked cardiorespiratory and blood gases responses.

Intracerebroventricularly injected nesfatin-1 activates central cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase pathways

Nesfatin-1 is a multifunctional neuropeptide having crucial autonomic roles. It is well known that nesfatin-1 collaborates with other central neuromodulatory systems, such as central corticotropin-releasing hormone, melanocortin, oxytocin, and cholinergic systems to show its autonomic effects. Central arachidonic acid cascade plays an important role to provide the homeostasis by exhibiting similar autonomic effects to nesfatin-1. Based on these similarities, the current study was designed to show the effects of intracerebroventricularly (ICV) injected nesfatin-1 on the hypothalamic arachidonic acid (AA) cascade. Immunochemistry and western blot approaches demonstrated that ICV administration of nesfatin-1 provokes an increase in the hypothalamic cyclooxygenase (COX) -1, -2 and lipoxygenase (LOX) protein expression. Moreover, the microdialysis study demonstrated that centrally injected nesfatin-1 increased the posterior hypothalamic extracellular AA products. In conclusion, these findings report that while nesfatin-1 is generating its autonomic effects, it also might be using central prostaglandins and leukotrienes by activating central COX and LOX pathways.

Activation of the central histaminergic system mediates arachidonic-acid-induced cardiovascular effects

The aim of this study was to explain the involvement of the central histaminergic system in arachidonic acid (AA)-induced cardiovascular effects in normotensive rats using hemodynamic, immunohistochemistry, and microdialysis studies. Intracerebroventricularly (i.c.v.) administered AA (0.25, 0.5, and 1.0 μmol) induced dose- and time-dependent increases in mean arterial pressure and decreased heart rate in conscious normotensive Sprague–Dawley rats. Central injection of AA (0.5 μmol) also increased posterior hypothalamic extracellular histamine levels and produced strong COX-1 but not COX-2 immunoreactivity in the posterior hypothalamus of rats. Moreover, the cardiovascular effects and COX-1 immunoreactivity in the posterior hypothalamus induced by AA (0.5 μmol; i.c.v.) were almost completely blocked by the H2 receptor antagonist ranitidine (50 and 100 nmol; i.c.v.) and partially blocked by the H1 receptor blocker chlorpheniramine (100 nmol; i.c.v.) and the H3–H4 receptor antagonist thioperamide (50 and 100 nmol; i.c.v.). In conclusion, these results indicate that centrally administered AA induces pressor and bradycardic responses in conscious rats. Moreover, we suggest that AA may activate histaminergic neurons and increase extracellular histamine levels, particularly in the posterior hypothalamus. Acting as a neurotransmitter, histamine is potentially involved in AA-induced cardiovascular effects under normotensive conditions.

Centrally administered CDP-choline induced cardiovascular responses are mediated by activation of the central phospholipase-prostaglandin signaling cascade

The present study was designed to determine the involvement of central prostaglandin synthesis on the pressor and bradycardic effect of cytidine 5'-diphosphocholine (CDP-choline). Intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) administration of CDP-choline was made and blood pressure and heart rate were recorded in male Sprague Dawley rats throughout this study. Microdialysis and immunohistochemical studies were performed to measure extracellular total prostaglandin concentration and to show cyclooxygenase-1 and -2 (COX-1 and -2) immunoreactivities, respectively, in the posterior hypothalamic area. Moreover, rats were pretreated (i.c.v) with mepacrine [a phospholipase A2 (PLA2) inhibitor], ibuprofen [a nonselective COX inhibitor], neomycine [a phospholipase C (PLC) inhibitor] or furegrelate [a thromboxane A2 (TXA2) synthesis inhibitor] 5 min prior to the injection of CDP-choline to determine the effects of these inhibitors on cardiovascular responses to CDP-choline. Control rats were pretreated (i.c.v) with saline. CDP-choline caused a dose- and time-dependent increase in blood pressure and decrease in heart rate. Immunohistochemical studies showed that CDP-choline increased COX-1 and -2 immunoreactivities in the posterior hypothalamic area. CDP-choline also elevated hypothalamic extracellular total prostaglandin concentration by 62%, as shown in microdialysis studies. Mepacrine or ibuprofen pretreatments almost completely blocked the pressor and bradycardic responses to CDP-choline while neomycine or furegrelate partially attenuated the drug-induced cardiovascular effects. The results suggest that CDP-choline may stimulate prostaglandin synthesis through the activation of PLA2, cyclooxygenases (COX-1 and -2) and prostaglandins and at least TXA2, may mediate the drug׳s cardiovascular effects.

The effect of centrally injected CDP-choline on respiratory system; involvement of phospholipase to thromboxane signaling pathway

CDP-choline is an endogenous metabolite in phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis. Exogenous administration of CDP-choline has been shown to affect brain metabolism and to exhibit cardiovascular, neuroendocrine neuroprotective actions. On the other hand, little is known regarding its respiratory actions and/or central mechanism of its respiratory effect. Therefore the current study was designed to investigate the possible effects of centrally injected CDP-choline on respiratory system and the mediation of the central cholinergic receptors and phospholipase to thromboxane signaling pathway on CDP-choline-induced respiratory effects in anaesthetized rats. Intracerebroventricularly (i.c.v.) administration of CDP-choline induced dose- and time-dependent increased respiratory rates, tidal volume and minute ventilation of male anaesthetized Spraque Dawley rats. İ.c.v. pretreatment with atropine failed to alter the hyperventilation responses to CDP-choline whereas mecamylamine, cholinergic nicotinic receptor antagonist, mepacrine, phospholipase A2 inhibitor, and neomycin phospholipase C inhibitor, blocked completely the hyperventilation induced by CDP-choline. In addition, central pretreatment with furegrelate, thromboxane A2 synthesis inhibitor, also partially blocked CDP-choline-evoked hyperventilation effects. These data show that centrally administered CDP-choline induces hyperventilation which is mediated by activation of central nicotinic receptors and phospholipase to thromboxane signaling pathway.

Putative role of prostaglandin receptor in intracerebral hemorrhage

Each year, approximately 795,000 people experience a new or recurrent stroke. Of all strokes, 84% are ischemic, 13% are intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) strokes, and 3% are subarachnoid hemorrhage strokes. Despite the decreased incidence of ischemic stroke, there has been no change in the incidence of hemorrhagic stroke in the last decade. ICH is a devastating disease 37–38% of patients between the ages of 45 and 64 die within 30 days. In an effort to prevent ischemic and hemorrhagic strokes we and others have been studying the role of prostaglandins and their receptors. Prostaglandins are bioactive lipids derived from the metabolism of arachidonic acid. They sustain homeostatic functions and mediate pathogenic mechanisms, including the inflammatory response. Most prostaglandins are produced from specific enzymes and act upon cells via distinct G-protein coupled receptors. The presence of multiple prostaglandin receptors cross-reactivity and coupling to different signal transduction pathways allow differentiated cells to respond to prostaglandins in a unique manner. Due to the number of prostaglandin receptors, prostaglandin-dependent signaling can function either to promote neuronal survival or injury following acute excitotoxicity, hypoxia, and stress induced by ICH. To better understand the mechanisms of neuronal survival and neurotoxicity mediated by prostaglandin receptors, it is essential to understand downstream signaling. Several groups including ours have discovered unique roles for prostaglandin receptors in rodent models of ischemic stroke, excitotoxicity, and Alzheimer disease, highlighting the emerging role of prostaglandin receptor signaling in hemorrhagic stroke with a focus on cyclic-adenosine monophosphate and calcium (Ca²⁺) signaling. We review current ICH data and discuss future directions notably on prostaglandin receptors, which may lead to the development of unique therapeutic targets against hemorrhagic stroke and brain injuries alike.

The mediation of the central histaminergic system in the pressor effect of intracerebroventricularly injected melittin, a phospholipase A2 activator, in normotensive rats

Melittin is a polypeptide component of bee venom that leads to an increase in arachidonic acid release and subsequently in prostaglandin synthesis by activating phospholipase A(2). Recently we demonstrated that centrally or peripherally administrated melittin caused pressor effect and central thromboxane A(2) (TXA(2)) and cholinergic system mediated these effects of melittin. Also centrally injected histamine leads to pressor and bradycardic response by activating central histamine receptors in normotensive rats and central cholinergic system involved the effects of histamine. The present study demonstrates an involvement of the central histaminergic system in melittin-induced cardiovascular effect in normotensive rats. Experiments were carried out in male Sprague Dawley rats. Intracerebroventricularly (i.c.v.) injected melittin (0.5, 1 and 2 nmol) caused dose- and time-dependent increases in mean arterial pressure (MAP) and decrease in heart rate (HR) as we reported previously. Moreover, H(2) receptor antagonist ranitidine (50 nmol; i.c.v.) almost completely and H(3)/H(4) receptor antagonist thioperamide (50 nmol; i.c.v.) partly blocked melittin-evoked cardiovascular effects, whereas H(1) receptor blocker chlorpheniramine (50 nmol; i.c.v.) had no effect. Also centrally injected melittin was accompanied by 28% increase in extracellular histamine concentration in the posterior hypothalamus, as shown in microdialysis studies. In conclusion, results show that centrally administered melittin causes pressor and bradycardic response in conscious rats. Moreover, according to our findings, there is an involvement of the central histaminergic system in melittin-induced cardiovascular effects.

The role of the central arachidonic acid-thromboxane A2 cascade in cardiovascular regulation during hemorrhagic shock in rats

The aim of the current study was to elucidate the underlying central mechanism(s) of the cardiovascular effects evoked by centrally injected melittin and arachidonic acid (AA) in hemorrhaged hypotensive condition, specifically, from central AA release from the cell membrane under the influence of phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) to central thromboxane A(2) (TXA(2)) signaling via the cyclooxygenase (COX) pathway. As the main control of the study, melittin (3 μg) or AA (150 μg) was injected intracerebroventricularly (i.c.v.) after the hemorrhage procedure, which was performed by withdrawing a total volume of 2.2 ml of blood/100g body weight over a period of 10 min. Both treatments generated a pressor response and abolished the hypotension-induced hemorrhage. Pretreatment with the PLA(2) inhibitor mepacrine (500 μg; i.c.v.) completely blocked the pressor response to melittin in the hemorrhagic hypotensive state. Pretreatments with the nonselective COX inhibitor indomethacin (200 μg; i.c.v.) or the TXA(2) synthesis inhibitor furegrelate (250 or 500 μg; i.c.v.) were made to test the role of central COX activity and, subsequently, the TXA(2) signaling pathway in the melittin- or AA-mediated reversal of hemorrhagic hypotension. Indomethacin completely prevented the pressor response to melittin and AA in the hemorrhaged, hypotensive state, but furegrelate did so only partially. In conclusion, these findings suggest that central COX activity and, subsequently, the central TXA(2) signaling pathway, are, at least in part, involved in the melittin- or AA-induced reversal effect during hemorrhagic shock.

Prostanoid signaling: dual role for prostaglandin E2 in neurotoxicity

The prostanoids, a naturally occurring subclass of eicosanoids, are lipid mediators generated through oxidative pathways from arachidonic acid. These cyclooxygenase metabolites, consisting of the prostaglandins (PG), prostacyclin and tromboxane, are released in response to a variety of physiological and pathological stimuli in almost all organs, including the brain. They are produced by various cell types and act upon targeted cells via specific G protein-coupled receptors. The existence of multiple receptors, cross-reactivity and coupling to different signal transduction pathways for each prostanoid, collectively establish their diverse effects. Notably, these effects can occur in functionally opposing directions within the same cell or organ. Prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) is the most versatile prostanoid because of its receptors, E Prostanoid (EP) receptor subtypes 1 through 4, its biological heterogeneity and its differential expression on neuronal and glial cells throughout the central nervous system. Since PGE(2) plays an important role in processes associated with various neurological diseases, this review focuses on its dual neuroprotective and neurotoxic role in EP receptor subtype signaling pathways in different models of brain injury.

Central mechanism underlying pressor and bradycardic effect of intracerebroventricularly injected arachidonic acid

The aim of the current study was to determine the central cyclooxygenase (COX) pathway and central thromboxane signaling in the cardiovascular effects evoked by arachidonic acid (AA). As a main control for the study, different doses of AA (75, 150, or 300 µg) were administered intracerebroventricularly (i.c.v.). Centrally injected AA dose- and time-dependently increased mean arterial pressure and decreased heart rate in conscious normotensive Sprague–Dawley rats. The maximal cardiovascular effects of AA were observed at min 10 of the injection and lasted almost 30 min. To investigate the central mechanism of the AA-induced cardiovascular effect in conscious normotensive animals, pretreatment with nonselective COX inhibitor indomethacin (200 µg; i.c.v.), thromboxane A2 (TXA2) synthesis inhibitor furegrelate (250 or 500 µg; i.c.v.), or TXA2 receptor antagonist SQ-29548 (8 or 16 µg; i.c.v.) was carried out 15 min before AA (150 µg; i.c.v.) injection. While indomethacin completely prevented the pressor and bradycardic responses to AA, furegrelate and SQ-29548 attenuated these effects in part in awake normotensive rats. In conclusion, these findings suggest that the pressor and bradycardic cardiovascular effects of centrally injected AA are dependent on COX activity being totally central and the TXA2 signaling pathway being subsequently central, at least in part.

Cardiovascular effect of peripheral injected melittin in normotensive conscious rats: Mediation of the central cholinergic system

Recently we demonstrated that centrally administrated melittin, a phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) activator, caused the pressor effect in normotensive, conscious rats. In the present study, we aimed to determine the cardiovascular effect of peripherally injected melittin and the involvement of the central cholinergic system on these effects in the normotensive conscious rats. For this reason, 250, 500 or 1000microg/kg doses of melittin were injected intraperitoneally to normotensive male Sprague Dawley rats. Melittin produced dose- and time-dependent increases in mean arterial pressure (MAP) and heart rate (HR). Both peripheral (5mg/kg; i.p.) and central (500microg; i.c.v.) pretreatment with indomethacin, nonselective inhibitor of cyclooxygenase (COX) 1 and 2, totally abolished cardiovascular effect of melittin. Intraperitoneal (i.p.) pretreatment with propranolol, a nonselective beta-adrenergic receptor blocker, completely abolished the tachycardic response to melittin. Also, the pressor effect of melittin was partially attenuated in these rats. In order to test the mediation of the central cholinergic system on the pressor and tachycardic effects of melittin, the rats were pretreated with atropine sulfate (10microg; i.c.v.), a cholinergic nonselective muscarinic receptor antagonist, mecamylamine (50microg; i.c.v.), a cholinergic nonselective nicotinic receptor antagonist, methyllycaconitine (10microg; i.c.v.) or alpha-bungarotoxin (10microg; i.c.v.), selective antagonists of alpha7 subtype nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (alpha7nAChRs) 15min prior to melittin (500microg/kg; i.p.) injection. Pretreatment with mecamylamine, methyllycaconitine or alpha-bungarotoxin partially diminished the pressor and tachycardic response to melittin in the normotensive conscious rats whereas pretreatment with atropine sulfate had no effect. In conclusion, our data demonstrate that peripherally administered melittin exerts a clear pressor and tachycardic effect by activating COX pathway. The activation of central cholinergic nicotinic receptors, predominantly alpha7nAChRs, appears to be involved in the pressor and tachycardic effects of the drug.

Peripheral mechanisms involved in the pressor and bradycardic effects of centrally administered arachidonic acid

In the current study, we aimed to determine the cardiovascular effects of arachidonic acid and peripheral mechanisms mediated these effects in normotensive conscious rats. Studies were performed in male Sprague Dawley rats. Arachidonic acid was injected intracerebroventricularly (i.c.v.) at the doses of 75, 150 or 300 microg and it caused dose- and time-dependent increase in mean arterial pressure and decrease in heart rate in normal conditions. Maximal effects were observed 10 min after 150 and 300 microg dose of arachidonic acid and lasted within 30 min. In order to evaluate the role of main peripheral hormonal mechanisms in those cardiovascular effects, plasma adrenaline, noradrenaline, vasopressin levels and renin activity were measured after arachidonic acid (150 microg; i.c.v.) injection. Centrally injected arachidonic acid increased plasma levels of all these hormones and renin activity. Intravenous pretreatments with prazosin (0.5 mg/kg), an alpha1 adrenoceptor antagonist, [beta-mercapto-beta,beta-cyclopentamethylenepropionyl1, O-Me-Tyr2-Arg8]-vasopressin (10 microg/kg), a vasopressin V1 receptor antagonist, or saralasin (250 microg/kg), an angiotensin II receptor antagonist, partially blocked the pressor response to arachidonic acid (150 microg; i.c.v.) while combined administration of these three antagonists completely abolished the effect. Moreover, both individual and combined antagonist pretreatments fully blocked the bradycardic effect of arachidonic acid. In conclusion, our findings show that centrally administered arachidonic acid increases mean arterial pressure and decreases heart rate in normotensive conscious rats and the increases in plasma adrenaline, noradrenaline, vasopressin levels and renin activity appear to mediate the cardiovascular effects of the drug.

Cardiovascular effects of centrally injected melittin in hemorrhaged hypotensive rats: the investigation of peripheral mechanisms

We have previously shown that centrally injected melittin, a phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) activator, increases blood pressure and decreases heart rate in the normotensive conscious rats. In the current study we aimed to determine the cardiovascular effects of melittin in hemorrhaged hypotensive rats and to investigate the mediation of peripheral adrenergic, vasopressinergic and renin angiotensin system in the pressor effect of centrally administrated melittin in both normotensive and hypotensive conditions. Acute hypotensive hemorrhage was performed by withdrawing a total volume of 2.2ml of blood/100g body weight over a period of 10min. Melittin was injected intracerebroventricularly (i.c.v.) at the doses of 1.5microg, 3.0microg or 6.0microg after the stabilization period of hemorrhage procedure. We also repeated previous experiments by injecting melittin (1.5microg, 3.0microg or 6.0microg; i.c.v.) to the normotensive animals. Melittin caused dose- and time-dependent increases in mean arterial pressure (MAP) in normal and hypotensive conditions and decreases in heart rate (HR) in normotensive conscious animals. In hypotensive rats, melittin injected at the dose of 6.0microg completely restored the decrease in blood pressure. Plasma adrenaline, noradrenaline, vasopressin levels and renin activity increased after melittin (3.0microg; i.c.v) administration in normal conditions. Hemorrhage, itself, produced an increase in these plasma hormone levels and melittin (3.0microg; i.c.v.) caused additional increases in plasma adrenaline, noradrenaline, vasopressin levels and renin activity in hypotensive conditions. Intravenous pretreatments of rats with prazosin (0.5mg/kg), an alpha(1) adrenoceptor antagonist, [beta-mercapto-beta,beta-cyclopentamethylenepropionyl(1), O-Me-Tyr(2)-Arg(8)]-vasopressin (10microg/kg), a vasopressin V(1) receptor antagonist, or saralasin (250microg/kg), an angiotensin II receptor antagonist, partially blocked the pressor response to melittin (3.0microg; i.c.v.) in both normotensive and hypotensive conditions. Besides, the combined administration of these three antagonists before melittin completely abolished the pressor responses to drug in both conditions. Results show that centrally administered melittin, a PLA(2) activator, increases blood pressure and reverses hypotension in hemorrhagic shock. The increases in plasma adrenaline, noradrenaline, vasopressin levels and renin activity mediate the pressor responses to melittin in normal and hypotensive conditions.

The involvement of the central cholinergic system in the pressor and bradycardic effects of centrally administrated melittin in normotensive conscious rats

Recently we demonstrated that centrally administrated melittin, a phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) activator, caused pressor and bradycardic effect in the normotensive conscious rats. In the current study we aimed to determine the mediation of central cholinergic system in the pressor and bradycardic effect of centrally administrated melittin. Studies were performed in normotensive male Sprague-Dawley rats. 1.5, 3.0 or 6.0microg/5.0microl doses of melittin were injected intracerebroventricularly (i.c.v.). Melittin caused dose- and time-dependent increases in mean arterial pressure (MAP) and decrease in heart rate (HR). In order to test the mediation of central cholinergic system on the pressor and bradycardic effect of melittin, the rats were pretreated with mecamylamine (50microg; i.c.v.), cholinergic nonselective nicotinic receptor antagonist, atropine sulfate (10microg; i.c.v.), a cholinergic nonselective muscarinic receptor antagonist, hemicholinium-3 (20microg; i.c.v.), a high affinity neuronal choline uptake inhibitor, methyllycaconitine (10 and 25microg; i.c.v.) or alpha-bungarotoxin (10 and 25microg; i.c.v.), selective antagonists of alpha-7 subtype nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (alpha7nAChRs), 15min prior to melittin (3.0microg) injection. Pretreatment with mecamylamine, hemicholinium-3, methyllycaconitine or alpha-bungarotoxin partially attenuated the pressor and bradicardia effect of elicited by melittin in the normotensive conscious rats whereas pretreatment with atropine had no effect. In conclusion, i.c.v. administration of melittin increases MAP and decreases HR in conscious rats. The activation of central nicotinic cholinergic receptors, predominantly alpha7nAChRs, partially acts as a mediator in the pressor responses to i.c.v. injection of melittin in the normotensive conscious rats. Moreover, decreased uptake of choline to the cholinergic terminals may consider that melittin activates central choline and acetylcholine release, as well.

Activation of the central cholinergic system mediates the reversal of hypotension by centrally administrated U-46619, a thromboxane A2 analog, in hemorrhaged rats

In the present study, we investigated the role of the central cholinergic system in mediating the pressor effect of intracerebroventricularly administrated U-46619, a thromboxane A2 (TxA2) analog, in hemorrhaged hypotensive rats. Hemorrhage was performed by withdrawing a total volume of 2.1 ml of blood per 100 g body weight over a period of 10 min. Intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injection of U-46619 (0.5, 1, 2 micro g) produced a dose- and time-dependent increase in arterial pressure and reversed the hypotension of this condition. Hemorrhage caused small increases in extracellular hypothalamic acetylcholine and choline levels. Intracerebroventricular administration of U-46619 (1 micro g) further increased the levels of extracellular acetylcholine and choline by 57% and 41%, respectively. Pretreatment with SQ-29548 (8 mug; i.c.v.), a selective TxA2 receptor antagonist, completely abrogated the effects of subsequent injection of U-46619 (1 mug; i.c.v.) on arterial pressure and extracellular acetylcholine and choline levels. Pretreatment with mecamylamine (50 micro g; i.c.v.), a cholinergic nonselective nicotinic receptor antagonist, attenuated the pressor effect of U-46619 (1 micro g, i.c.v.) in hemorrhaged rats whereas pretreatment with atropine (10 micro g; i.c.v.), a cholinergic nonselective muscarinic receptor antagonist, had no effect. Interestingly, pretreatment of rats with methyllycaconitine (10 micro g; i.c.v.) or alpha-bungarotoxin (10 micro g; i.c.v.), selective antagonists of alpha-7 subtype nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (alpha7nAChRs), partially abolished the pressor effect of U-46619 (1 micro g; i.c.v.) in the hypotensive condition. Pretreatment with a combination of mecamylamine plus methyllycaconitine or mecamylamine plus alpha-bungarotoxin attenuated the reversal effect of U-46619, but only to the same extent as pretreatment with either antagonist alone. In conclusion, i.c.v. administration of U-46619 restores arterial pressure and increases posterior hypothalamic acetylcholine and choline levels by activating central TxA2 receptors in hemorrhaged hypotensive rats. The activation of central nicotinic cholinergic receptors, predominantly alpha7nAChRs, partially acts as a mediator in the pressor responses to i.c.v. injection of U-46619 under these conditions.

The role of the central thromboxane A2 in cardiovascular effects of a phospholipase A2 activator melittin administrated intracerebroventricularly in normotensive conscious rats

The current study was designed to determine the cardiovascular effect of centrally administrated melittin, a phospholipase A2 (PLA2) activator, and the mediation of central thromboxane A2 (TXA2) and its receptors in normotensive conscious rats. Studies were performed in normotensive male Sprague Dawley rats injected intracerebroventricularly (i.c.v.) with melittin. Melittin (1.5, 3.0, 6.0 microg/5.0 microl; i.c.v.) caused dose- and time-dependent increases in mean arterial pressure (MAP) and decrease in heart rate (HR). Maximal effects were observed 5-10 min after 3.0 microg dose of melittin. In order to test the mediation of central TXA2 and its central receptors in the cardiovascular effect of melittin, the rats were pretreated with furegrelate (500.0 microg; i.c.v.), a TXA2 synthesis inhibitor, and SQ-29548 (8.0 microg; i.c.v.), a TXA2 receptor antagonist, 15 min prior to melittin (3.0 microg). Furegrelate or SQ-29548 partially inhibited the pressor effect and bradycardia elicited by melittin. In conclusion, our findings show that centrally administered melittin increases MAP and decreases HR in conscious rats. Moreover, according to our findings, central TXA2 and its receptors may in part mediate melittin-induced cardiovascular effects.