Peripheral, but not central, nervous system abnormalities are reversed by pancreatic islet transplantation in diabetic Lewis rats

Administration of Zinc plus Cyclo-(His-Pro) Increases Hippocampal Neurogenesis in Rats during the Early Phase of Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetes

The effects of zinc supplementation on hippocampal neurogenesis in diabetes mellitus have not been studied. Herein, we investigated the effects of zinc plus cyclo-(His-Pro) (ZC) on neurogenesis occurring in the subgranular zone of dentate gyrus after streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetes. ZC (27 mg/kg) was administered by gavage once daily for one or six weeks from the third day after the STZ injection, and histological evaluation was performed at 10 (early phase) or 45 (late phase) days after STZ injection. We found that the proliferation of progenitor cells in STZ-induced diabetic rats showed an increase in the early phase. Additionally, ZC treatment remarkably increased the number of neural progenitor cells (NPCs) and immature neurons in the early phase of STZ-induced diabetic rats. Furthermore, ZC treatment showed increased survival rate of newly generated cells but no difference in the level of neurogenesis in the late phase of STZ-induced diabetic rats. The present study demonstrates that zinc supplementation by ZC increases both NPCs proliferation and neuroblast production at the early phase of diabetes. Thus, this study suggests that zinc supplemented with a histidine/proline complex may have beneficial effects on neurogenesis in patients experiencing the early phase of Type 1 diabetes.

Sweet memories: 20 years of progress in research on cognitive functioning in diabetes

This paper appears in a special issue of the European Journal of Pharmacology that commemorates the retirement of Professor Willem Hendrik Gispen as distinguished professor of Utrecht University and as editor of the European Journal of Pharmacology. The paper provides an overview of a research line on the impact of diabetes on cognition that we started together 20 years ago, and that continues to this day. I will report how we more or less stumbled upon this topic, that was understudied, but proved to be of definite clinical relevance. I will discuss how we tried to establish animal models, how developments from clinical and experimental studies from around the world led us to reconsider our concepts, and how findings from research on diabetic neuropathy, insulin signaling in the brain, Alzheimer's disease and dementia, and vascular disease and stroke converged and helped to create new ideas and refute others. This voyage has not ended yet, because the ultimate goal is to offer patients with diabetes treatment that can protect them against accelerated cognitive decline. Although this could take another 20 years, the research from Willem Hendrik and his group brought us an important step in the right direction.

Synaptic transmission changes in the pyramidal cells of the hippocampus in streptozotocin-induced diabetes mellitus in rats

The central nervous system complications of diabetes mellitus (DM) include defects in hippocampal synaptic plasticity induction and difficulties in learning and memory. DM was induced by streptozotocin (STZ) injection in rats. After 12 weeks of DM duration, the rats were decapitated, and hippocampal slices were prepared for in vitro study. Field excitatory postsynaptic potentials (fEPSP) were recorded after repeated stimulations with 50 impulses given either in 10 or 20 Hz. The responses were significantly smaller in the diabetic animals than in the age-matched control rats. The summation of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid (AMPA) responses was tested in both groups by stimulating the synapses with five consecutive stimuli given in 50-Hz frequency. Intracellular recording from the pyramidal hippocampal cells of the AMPA summation responses from diabetic and aged-matched control animals revealed a significant lower summation in the diabetic animals compared to the control. It is concluded that responses evoked by high-frequency stimulation (HFS) were significantly higher in the control animals. The defects in diabetic slices could be related to pre- as well as postsynaptic changes, and these defects play an important role in the synaptic plasticity changes seen in STZ-induced diabetic animals.

The effect of short duration streptozotocin-induced diabetes mellitus on the late phase and threshold of long-term potentiation induction in the rat

Long-term potentiation (LTP) was examined in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats of 8 (DM8) and 20 (DM20) weeks duration of diabetes mellitus (DM). DM8 animals showed significant LTP induction, although the potentiation of the synapses was significantly lower than in the control animals. No significant potentiation of the synapses could be demonstrated in DM20 animals. The different aspects of LTP induction in the DM8 animals were studied. The threshold of LTP induction was measured by stimulating the slices with 100 Hz frequency trains of stimuli containing different number of impulses. The results showed increased threshold for LTP induction in the DM8 animals compared to the controls. The late LTP (L-LTP) phase induction was studied by applying 3 repeated HFSs to the afferent fibers. Diabetic animals (DM8) slices failed to maintain the synaptic potentiation induced by the high frequency stimulations (HFSs) for more than 1 h.

Effects of the Ca2+ antagonist nimodipine on functional deficits in the peripheral and central nervous system of streptozotocin-diabetic rats

Diabetes mellitus can lead to functional and structural deficits in both the peripheral and central nervous system. The pathogenesis of these deficits is multifactorial, probably involving, among others, microvascular dysfunction and alterations in intracellular calcium homeostasis. The present study examined the effects of treatment with the Ca2+ antagonist nimodipine (20 mg/kg, intraperitoneal injection, every 48 h) on functional deficits in the peripheral and central nervous system in streptozotocin-diabetic rats. In a prevention experiment, treatment was initiated immediately after diabetes induction and continued for 10 weeks. In a reversal experiment, treatment was initiated 16 weeks after diabetes induction and continued for 12 weeks. Sciatic nerve motor and sensory conduction velocity, brainstem auditory-evoked potentials, and visual-evoked potentials were measured in control, untreated, and nimodipine-treated diabetic rats. In addition, long-term potentiation, a form of synaptic plasticity used as a model for learning and memory at the cellular level, was examined in hippocampal slices. Nimodipine treatment partially prevented deficits in nerve conduction velocity and hippocampal long-term potentiation in diabetic rats. However, nimodipine intervention treatment was unable to reverse established deficits in nerve conduction velocity, evoked potential latencies, or long-term potentiation. It is concluded that nimodipine can partially prevent early functional deficits in the peripheral and central nervous system of streptozotocin-diabetic rats but is unable to reverse late deficits.

Nerve conduction velocity and evoked potential latencies in streptozotocin-diabetic rats: effects of treatment with an angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor

BACKGROUND

Diabetes mellitus is associated with deficits in cerebral function. Vascular disorders may play a role in the pathogenesis and provide a potential target for treatment. The present study examined if prevention and intervention treatment with the angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor enalapril could improve peripheral and central neurophysiological deficits in streptozotocin-diabetic rats.

METHODS

Sciatic nerve conduction velocities were measured prior to diabetes induction and again every three weeks. In the prevention study, the final nerve conduction measurements were performed at 15 weeks and in the intervention study at 24 weeks. Brain stem auditory and visual evoked potential latencies were measured every 3 weeks from 10 weeks after diabetes induction. In the prevention study, the final evoked potential measurements were performed at 16 weeks and in the intervention study at 25 weeks. Treatment with the angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor enalapril was started directly after diabetes induction (prevention treatment) and after 15 weeks of diabetes (intervention treatment).

RESULTS

Nerve conduction velocity, brain stem auditory and visual evoked potential latencies were impaired in diabetic rats. Enalapril prevented deficits in nerve conduction velocity (p < 0.001), brain stem auditory evoked potential latencies (p < 0.01) and visual evoked potential latencies (p < 0.005). Enalapril intervention treatment had no effect on nerve conduction velocity and on visual evoked potential latencies, but improved brain stem auditory evoked potential latencies (p < 0.05) after 10 weeks of treatment.

CONCLUSION

Enalapril partially prevents the development of neurophysiological alterations in the peripheral and central nervous system and partially reverses deficits in brain stem auditory evoked potential latencies in STZ-diabetic rats.

Neuronal Ca2+ disregulation in diabetes mellitus

The Ca(2+) hypothesis of brain ageing and dementia may account for part of the available data on the pathogenesis of dementia and certain neurodegenerative disorders. The hypothesis proposes that disturbances in the homeostasis of neuronal cytosolic free Ca(2+) are part of a final common pathway, ultimately leading to neuronal dysfunction and cell death. The hypothesis also proposes that a small change in cytosolic free Ca(2+) sustained over a long period of time will result in similar damage as a large change over a short period. Diabetes mellitus is associated with neurological complications in the peripheral and central nervous system, as reflected in peripheral neuropathy, modest cognitive impairments and an increased risk of dementia. In animal models of diabetes, learning impairments are associated with alterations in Ca(2+) -dependent forms of hippocampal synaptic plasticity. Disturbances in the homeostasis of cytosolic free Ca(2+) may present a final common pathway in the multifactorial pathogenesis of neurological complications of diabetes, which involves vascular changes, oxidative stress, and non-enzymatic protein glycation. In line with the Ca(2+) hypothesis of neurodegenerative disorders, a prolonged, small increase in basal cytosolic Ca(2+) levels indeed exists in sensory neurones of diabetic animals. In addition, Ca(2+) dynamics are affected. Ca(2+) channel blockers, such as nimodipine, have been shown to improve experimental peripheral neuropathy, through a vascular mechanism, possibly in combination with direct neuronal effects. Preliminary studies indicate that nimodipine may also improve Ca(2+)-dependent forms of synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus of diabetic rats.

Advanced glycation end product levels in eye lenses, aorta, and tail tendon in transplanted diabetic inbred Lewis rats

BACKGROUND

Pancreatic islet transplantation in diabetes, by restoring euglycemia, should in time correct the abnormal accumulation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) over target tissues, thus delaying the development of late diabetic complications.

METHODS

Homologous islet transplantation was performed in inbred Lewis rats 15 days (TA), 4 months (TB), and 8 months (TC) after streptozotocin diabetes. Group TA was studied for 12 months and groups TB and TC were studied for 4 months after transplantation. Normal (N) and diabetic (D) rats formed the control groups. Metabolic control in the transplant (T) groups was evaluated by oral glucose tolerance test. Blood glucose, glycated hemoglobin, and body weight were determined in all groups. AGE levels were determined by spectrofluorometry in eye lens proteins and by ELISA in aortic and tail tendon collagen.

RESULTS

T groups showed normal oral glucose tolerance tests and metabolic parameters. The latter were altered in all D groups (P<0.005 to P<0.0001 versus N and T groups). AGEs were increased in the D groups (P<0.05 to P<0.001) versus the N groups. AGEs in the TA and TB groups were not different from those of the N groups but were significantly reduced (P<0.05 to P<0.001) when compared with those of the D groups. In the TC group, eye lens AGEs were significantly elevated (P<0.001) or significantly reduced (P<0.01) when compared with those of the N or D groups, respectively. Aortic collagen AGEs were elevated (P<0.01) by comparison with those of the N groups and not statistically different from those of the D groups. Tail tendon collagen AGE levels lay between those of the N and D groups, without reaching a statistical significance.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that primary and early secondary (groups TA and TB) but not late secondary (group TC) islet transplantations are capable of blocking or reducing an abnormal accumulation of AGEs, thus confirming the importance of preventive transplantation therapies.

The effect of gamma-linolenic acid-alpha-lipoic acid on functional deficits in the peripheral and central nervous system of streptozotocin-diabetic rats

Diabetes mellitus can lead to functional and structural deficits in both the peripheral and central nervous system. The pathogenesis of these deficits is multifactorial, probably involving, among others, microvascular dysfunction and oxidative stress. The present study examined the effects of 12 weeks of treatment with a conjugate of the essential fatty acid gamma-linolenic acid and the anti-oxidant alpha-lipoic acid (GLA-LA) on functional deficits in the peripheral and central nervous system in streptozotocin-diabetic rats. Treatment was initiated 16 weeks after diabetes induction. Sciatic nerve motor and sensory conduction velocity, brainstem auditory evoked potentials and visual evoked potentials were measured in control, untreated and GLA-LA treated diabetic rats. Also, long-term potentiation, a form of synaptic plasticity used as a model for learning and memory at the cellular level, was examined in hippocampal slices. GLA-LA treatment (50 mg/kg/day) did not reverse established deficits in nerve conduction velocity or in evoked potential latencies in diabetic rats. However, GLA-LA treatment did improve long-term potentiation in the hippocampus. It is concluded that GLA-LA, which is known to improve early deficits in peripheral nerve conduction in diabetic rats, is unable to reverse late deficits. However, the compound does reverse established deficits in long-term potentiation, suggesting that at least part of its activity is specifically directed at synaptic plasticity.

Cognition and synaptic plasticity in diabetes mellitus

Diabetes mellitus is associated with cognitive deficits and an increased risk of dementia, particularly in the elderly. These deficits are paralleled by neurophysiological and structural changes in the brain. In animal models of diabetes, impairments of spatial learning occur in association with distinct changes in hippocampal synaptic plasticity. At the molecular level these impairments might involve changes in glutamate-receptor subtypes, in second-messenger systems and in protein kinases. The multifactorial pathogenesis of diabetic encephalopathy is not yet completely understood, but clearly shares features with brain ageing and the pathogenesis of diabetic neuropathy. It involves both metabolic and vascular changes, related to chronic hyperglycaemia, but probably also defects in insulin action in the brain. Treatment with insulin might therefore not only correct hyperglycaemia, but could also directly affect the brain.

Effect of islet transplantation on neuroelectrophysiological abnormalities in diabetic inbred Lewis rats: comparison of primary versus secondary prevention

BACKGROUND

Neuroelectrophysiological abnormalities in diabetes indicate nervous function failure. Restoration of euglycemia by islet transplantation may prevent or reverse these abnormalities.

METHODS

Pancreatic islets were transplanted in inbred Lewis rats after 15 days (Ta12, primary prevention) or 8 months (Tb12, secondary prevention) from streptozotocin-induced diabetes. Transplanted and control (normal and diabetic) rats were followed for a total period of 12 months. Metabolic parameters, somato-sensory, brain-stem auditory, and visual evoked potentials were determined at the beginning and at the end of the study and before transplantation for secondary prevention.

RESULTS

The metabolic parameters in transplanted animals were similar to those of normal animals. Ta12 and normal group somato-sensory conduction velocities did not vary and were always significantly higher than those of diabetic animals. By contrast, Tb12 group conduction velocities showed only a partial improvement, values lying between those of diabetic and normal rats. Brain-stem auditory (waves I, II, and III) latencies in Ta12 group were similar to those of normal rats and significantly lower than those of diabetic animals (wave I: P<0.01; waves II and III: P<0.05). Tb12 group wave I and II latency values remained altered (P<0.005 and P<0.01 versus normal values respectively). Visual evoked potentials-P1 wave latencies in transplanted rats were always higher than those of normal and diabetic animals.

CONCLUSIONS

After primary prevention, central and peripheral neurological alterations were abolished. After secondary prevention, transplantation beneficial effects were partial, occurring mainly at peripheral level. These results highlight the importance of early transplantation to prevent hyperglycemia-dependent neuroelectrophysiological alterations.

Neurophysiological changes in the central and peripheral nervous system of streptozotocin-diabetic rats. Course of development and effects of insulin treatment

Diabetes mellitus can affect both the peripheral and the central nervous system. However, central deficits are documented less well than peripheral deficits. We therefore compared the course of development of neurophysiological changes in the central and peripheral nervous systems in streptozotocin-diabetic rats. Sciatic nerve conduction velocities and auditory and visual evoked potentials were measured prior to diabetes induction, and then monthly after diabetes induction for 6 months. In addition, the effect of insulin treatment was examined. Treatment was initiated after a diabetes duration of 6 months and was continued for 3 months. During treatment, evoked potentials and nerve conduction were measured monthly. In a third experiment, conduction velocities in ascending and descending pathways of the spinal cord were examined after 3 and 6 months of diabetes. Impairments of sciatic nerve conduction velocities developed fully during the first 2-3 months of diabetes. In contrast, increased latencies of auditory and visual evoked potentials developed only after 3-4 months of diabetes, and progressed gradually thereafter. Insulin treatment, initiated 6 months after induction of diabetes, improved both nerve conduction velocities and evoked potential latencies. Conduction velocities in the spinal cord tended to be reduced after 3 months of diabetes and were significantly reduced after 6 months of diabetes. The present study demonstrates that in streptozotocin-diabetic rats the course of development of peripheral and central neurophysiological changes differs. Peripheral impairments develop within weeks after diabetes induction, whereas central impairments take months to develop. Insulin can reverse both peripheral and central neurophysiological alterations.

Reduction of advanced glycation end-product (AGE) levels in nervous tissue proteins of diabetic Lewis rats following islet transplants is related to different durations of poor metabolic control

Advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) are irreversible compounds which, by abnormally accumulating over proteins as a consequence of diabetic hyperglycaemia, can damage tissues and thus contribute to the pathogenesis of diabetic complications. This study was performed to evaluate whether restoration of euglycaemia by islet transplantation modifies AGE accumulation in central and peripheral nervous tissue proteins and, as a comparison, in proteins from a non-nervous tissue. Two groups of streptozotocin diabetic inbred Lewis rats with 4 (T1) or 8 (T2) months disease duration were grafted into the liver via the portal vein with 1200-1500 islets freshly isolated from normal Lewis rats. Transplanted rats, age-matched control and diabetic rats studied in parallel, were followed for a further 4-month period. At study conclusion, glycaemia, glycated haemoglobin and body weight were measured in all animals, and an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) performed in transplanted rats. AGE levels in cerebral cortex, spinal cord, sciatic nerve proteins and tail tendon collagen were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Transplanted animal OGTTs were within normal limits, as were glycaemia and glycated haemoglobin. Diabetic animal AGEs were significantly higher than those of control animals. Protein AGE values were reduced in many transplanted animals compared to diabetic animals, reaching statistical significance in spinal cord (P < 0.05), sciatic nerve (P < 0.02) and tail tendon collagen (P < 0.05) of T1 animals. Thus, return to euglycaemia following islet transplantation after 4 months of diabetes with poor metabolic control reduces AGE accumulation rate in the protein fractions of the mixed and purely peripheral nervous tissues (spinal cord and sciatic nerve, respectively). However, after a double duration of bad metabolic control, a statistically significant AGE reduction has not been achieved in any of the tissues, suggesting the importance of an early therapeutic intervention to prevent the possibly pathological accumulation of AGEs in nervous and other proteins.

Water maze learning and hippocampal synaptic plasticity in streptozotocin-diabetic rats: effects of insulin treatment

Streptozotocin-diabetic rats express deficits in water maze learning and hippocampal synaptic plasticity. The present study examined whether these deficits could be prevented and/or reversed with insulin treatment. In addition, the water maze learning deficit in diabetic rats was further characterized. Insulin treatment was commenced at the onset of diabetes in a prevention experiment, and 10 weeks after diabetes induction in a reversal experiment. After 10 weeks of treatment, insulin-treated diabetic rats, untreated diabetic rats and non-diabetic controls were tested in a spatial version of the Morris water maze. Next, hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP) was measured in vitro. To further characterize the effects of diabetes on water maze learning, a separate group of rats was pre-trained in a non-spatial version of the maze, prior to exposure to the spatial version. Both water maze learning and hippocampal LTP were impaired in diabetic rats. Insulin treatment commenced at the onset of diabetes prevented these impairments. In the reversal experiment, insulin treatment failed to reverse established deficits in maze learning and restored LTP only partially. Non-spatial pre-training abolished the performance deficit of diabetic rats in the spatial version of the maze. It is concluded that insulin treatment may prevent but not reverse deficits in water maze learning and LTP in streptozotocin-diabetic rats. The pre-training experiment suggests that the performance deficit of diabetic rats in the spatial version of the water maze is related to difficulties in learning the procedures of the maze rather than to impairments of spatial learning.