A molecular switch for translational control in taste memory consolidation

The intersection of sleep and synaptic translation in synaptic plasticity deficits in neurodevelopmental disorders

Individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders experience persistent sleep deficits, and there is increasing evidence that sleep dysregulation is an underlying cause, rather than merely an effect, of the synaptic and behavioral defects observed in these disorders. At the molecular level, dysregulation of the synaptic proteome is a common feature of neurodevelopmental disorders, though the mechanism connecting these molecular and behavioral phenotypes is an ongoing area of investigation. A role for eIF2α in shifting the local proteome in response to changes in the conditions at the synapse has emerged. Here, we discuss recent progress in characterizing the intersection of local synaptic translation and sleep and propose a reciprocal mechanism of dysregulation in the development of synaptic plasticity defects in neurodevelopmental disorders.

Alzheimer's Disease and Impaired Bone Microarchitecture, Regeneration and Potential Genetic Links

Alzheimer's Disease (AD) and osteoporosis are both age-related degenerative diseases. Many studies indicate that these two diseases share common pathogenesis mechanisms. In this review, the osteoporotic phenotype of AD mouse models was discussed, and shared mechanisms such as hormonal imbalance, genetic factors, similar signaling pathways and impaired neurotransmitters were identified. Moreover, the review provides recent data associated with these two diseases. Furthermore, potential therapeutic approaches targeting both diseases were discussed. Thus, we proposed that preventing bone loss should be one of the most important treatment goals in patients with AD; treatment targeting brain disorders is also beneficial for osteoporosis.

Neuronal RNA granules are ribosome complexes stalled at the pre-translocation state

The polarized cell morphology of neurons dictates many neuronal processes, including the axodendridic transport of specific mRNAs and subsequent translation. mRNAs together with ribosomes and RNA-binding proteins form RNA granules that are targeted to axodendrites for localized translation in neurons. It has been established that localized protein synthesis in neurons is essential for long-term memory formation, synaptic plasticity, and neurodegeneration. We have used proteomics and electron microscopy to characterize neuronal RNA granules (nRNAg) isolated from rat brain tissues or human neuroblastoma. We show that ribosome containing RNA granules are morula-like structures when visualized by electron microscopy. Crosslinking-coupled mass-spectrometry identified potential G3BP2 binding site on the ribosome near the eIF3d-binding site on the 40S ribosomal subunit. We used cryo-EM to resolve the structure of the ribosome-component of nRNAg. The cryo-EM reveals that predominant particles in nRNAg are 80S ribosomes, resembling the pre-translocation state where tRNA's are in the hybrid A/P and P/E site. We also describe a new kind of principal motion of the ribosome, which we call the rocking motion.

Regulation of Drosophila Long-Term Courtship Memory by Ecdysis Triggering Hormone

Endocrine state is an important determinant of learning and memory in animals. In Drosophila, rejection of male courtship overtures by mated females leads to an aversive response manifested as courtship memory. Here we report that ecdysis triggering hormone (ETH) is an obligatory enabler of long-term courtship memory (LTM). ETH deficiency suppresses LTM, whereas augmented ETH release reduces the minimum training period required for LTM induction. ETH receptor knockdown either in the mushroom body (MB) γ lobe or in octopaminergic dorsal-anterior-lateral (DAL) neurons impairs memory performance, indicating its direct action in these brain areas. Consistent with these findings, brain exposure to ETH mobilizes calcium in MB γ lobe neuropils and DAL neurons. ETH receptor (ETHR) knockdown in the corpus allatum (CA) to create juvenile hormone (JH) deficiency also suppresses LTM, as does knockdown of the JH receptor Met in the MB γ lobe, indicating a convergence of ETH and JH signaling in this region of the brain. Our findings identify endocrine-enabled neural circuit components in the brain that are critical for persistent behavioral changes resulting from aversive social experience.

Protection of melatonin against acidosis-induced neuronal injuries

Acidosis, a common feature of cerebral ischaemia and hypoxia, plays a key role in these pathological processes by aggravating the ischaemic and hypoxic injuries. To explore the mechanisms, in this research, we cultured primary neurons in an acidic environment (potential of hydrogen [pH]6.2, 24 hours) to mimic the acidosis. By proteomic analysis, 69 differentially expressed proteins in the acidic neurons were found, mainly related to stress and cell death, synaptic plasticity and gene transcription. And, the acidotic neurons developed obvious alterations including increased neuronal death, reduced dendritic length and complexity, reduced synaptic proteins, tau hyperphosphorylation, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress activation, abnormal lysosome‐related signals, imbalanced oxidative stress/anti‐oxidative stress and decreased Golgi matrix proteins. Then, melatonin (1 × 10⁻⁴ mol/L) was used to pre‐treat the cultured primary neurons before acidic treatment (pH6.2). The results showed that melatonin partially reversed the acidosis‐induced neuronal death, abnormal dendritic complexity, reductions of synaptic proteins, tau hyperphosphorylation and imbalance of kinase/phosphatase. In addition, acidosis related the activations of glycogen synthase kinase‐3β and nuclear factor‐κB signals, ER stress and Golgi stress, and the abnormal autophagy‐lysosome signals were completely reversed by melatonin. These data indicate that melatonin is beneficial for neurons against acidosis‐induced injuries.

Activity of Insula to Basolateral Amygdala Projecting Neurons is Necessary and Sufficient for Taste Valence Representation

Conditioned taste aversion (CTA) is an associative learning paradigm, wherein consumption of an appetitive tastant (e.g., saccharin) is paired to the administration of a malaise-inducing agent, such as intraperitoneal injection of LiCl. Aversive taste learning and retrieval require neuronal activity within the anterior insula (aIC) and the basolateral amygdala (BLA). Here, we labeled neurons of the aIC projecting to the BLA in adult male mice using a retro-AAV construct and assessed their necessity in aversive and appetitive taste learning. By restricting the expression of chemogenetic receptors in aIC-to-BLA neurons, we demonstrate that activity within the aIC-to-BLA projection is necessary for both aversive taste memory acquisition and retrieval, but not for its maintenance, nor its extinction. Moreover, inhibition of the projection did not affect incidental taste learning per se, but effectively suppressed aversive taste memory retrieval when applied either during or before the encoding of the unconditioned stimulus for CTA (i.e., malaise). Remarkably, activation of the projection after novel taste consumption, without experiencing any internal discomfort, was sufficient to form an artificial aversive taste memory, resulting in strong aversive behavior upon retrieval. Our results indicate that aIC-to-BLA projecting neurons are an essential component in the ability of the brain to associate taste sensory stimuli with body states of negative valence and guide the expression of valence-specific behavior upon taste memory retrieval.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT In the present study we subjected mice to the conditioned taste aversion paradigm, where animals learn to associate novel taste with malaise (i.e., assign it negative valence). We show that activation of neurons in the anterior insular cortex (aIC) that project into the basolateral amygdala (BLA) in response to conditioned taste aversion is necessary to form a memory for a taste of negative valence. Moreover, artificial activation of this pathway (without any feeling of pain) after the sampling of a taste can also lead to such associative memory. Thus, activation of aIC-to-BLA projecting neurons is necessary and sufficient to form and retrieve aversive taste memory.

Translational Control in the Brain in Health and Disease

Translational control in neurons is crucially required for long-lasting changes in synaptic function and memory storage. The importance of protein synthesis control to brain processes is underscored by the large number of neurological disorders in which translation rates are perturbed, such as autism and neurodegenerative disorders. Here we review the general principles of neuronal translation, focusing on the particular relevance of several key regulators of nervous system translation, including eukaryotic initiation factor 2α (eIF2α), the mechanistic (or mammalian) target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1), and the eukaryotic elongation factor 2 (eEF2). These pathways regulate the overall rate of protein synthesis in neurons and have selective effects on the translation of specific messenger RNAs (mRNAs). The importance of these general and specific translational control mechanisms is considered in the normal functioning of the nervous system, particularly during synaptic plasticity underlying memory, and in the context of neurological disorders.

Translation regulation in the spinal dorsal horn - A key mechanism for development of chronic pain

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Spinal sensitization shares molecular mechanisms with hippocampal LTP and memory.

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Changes in mRNA translation are observed in many chronic pain conditions.

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Targeting translational control mechanisms is a promising strategy to inhibit pain.

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Targeting spinal reconsolidation can reverse established hypersensitivity.

Chronic pain is a pathological condition characterized by long-lasting pain after damaged tissue has healed. Chronic pain can be caused and maintained by changes in various components of the pain pathway, including sensory neurons, spinal cord and higher brain centers. Exaggerated sensitivity and responsiveness of spinal nociceptive circuits, representing maladaptive plasticity, play key roles in the amplification of peripheral signals in chronic pain conditions. This spinal amplification mechanism profoundly contributes to the development and maintenance of chronic pain hypersensitivity in response to peripheral injury, and in some cases occurs independently of the peripheral stimulus. Long-lasting changes in the activity of spinal neurons are caused by alterations in their cellular proteome, which relies on de novo gene expression. Recent evidence indicates that translational control of gene expression plays a major role in determining protein levels, and is intricately involved in different forms of intrinsic and synaptic plasticity. In this review, we summarize findings supporting a key role for translational control in spinal cord-dependent mechanisms of chronic pain, and present recent approaches to reverse persistent pain by targeting these mechanisms.

The Insula and Taste Learning

The sense of taste is a key component of the sensory machinery, enabling the evaluation of both the safety as well as forming associations regarding the nutritional value of ingestible substances. Indicative of the salience of the modality, taste conditioning can be achieved in rodents upon a single pairing of a tastant with a chemical stimulus inducing malaise. This robust associative learning paradigm has been heavily linked with activity within the insular cortex (IC), among other regions, such as the amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex. A number of studies have demonstrated taste memory formation to be dependent on protein synthesis at the IC and to correlate with the induction of signaling cascades involved in synaptic plasticity. Taste learning has been shown to require the differential involvement of dopaminergic GABAergic, glutamatergic, muscarinic neurotransmission across an extended taste learning circuit. The subsequent activation of downstream protein kinases (ERK, CaMKII), transcription factors (CREB, Elk-1) and immediate early genes (c-fos, Arc), has been implicated in the regulation of the different phases of taste learning. This review discusses the relevant neurotransmission, molecular signaling pathways and genetic markers involved in novel and aversive taste learning, with a particular focus on the IC. Imaging and other studies in humans have implicated the IC in the pathophysiology of a number of cognitive disorders. We conclude that the IC participates in circuit-wide computations that modulate the interception and encoding of sensory information, as well as the formation of subjective internal representations that control the expression of motivated behaviors.

Chronic Mild Stress-Induced Alterations of Local Protein Synthesis: A Role for Cognitive Impairment

Depression, a major cause of disability worldwide, is characterized by a complex and heterogeneous symptomatology. With this respect, cognitive deterioration represents a major problem that has a strong impact on a patient's function. Thus, within the context of a depressive phenotype, it is important to characterize the mechanisms that sustain cognitive dysfunctions and may represent an important target for pharmacological intervention. Here, using the chronic mild stress (CMS) paradigm of depression, we found that, independently from the anhedonic phenotype, CMS rats showed a deficit in the novel object recognition (NOR) test, which is associated with an inability to phosphorylate GluN2B subunit on Ser1303 and to activate the mTOR pathway. In agreement with the role of these systems in the control of local protein synthesis, we observed an increase phosphorylated eukaryotic elongation factor 2 (eEF2) in the crude synaptosomal fraction after the NOR test specifically in control animals. Since it has been demonstrated that peEF2 leads to the translation of specific mRNAs, we investigated if the gene-specific translational control depends on the presence of upstream open reading frame (uORF). Interestingly, we found a significant increase of oligophrenin-1 (2 uORFs) and of Bmal1 (7 uORFs) protein levels specifically in the control animals exposed to the NOR test. Our results demonstrated that the cognitive decline associated with stress exposure might be due to alterations in local protein translation of specific mRNAs, suggesting that a pharmacological intervention able to correct these defects might be useful in the improvement of deteriorated functions in patients with major depression and stress-related disorders.

eEF2K/eEF2 Pathway Controls the Excitation/Inhibition Balance and Susceptibility to Epileptic Seizures

Alterations in the balance of inhibitory and excitatory synaptic transmission have been implicated in the pathogenesis of neurological disorders such as epilepsy. Eukaryotic elongation factor 2 kinase (eEF2K) is a highly regulated, ubiquitous kinase involved in the control of protein translation. Here, we show that eEF2K activity negatively regulates GABAergic synaptic transmission. Indeed, loss of eEF2K increases GABAergic synaptic transmission by upregulating the presynaptic protein Synapsin 2b and α5-containing GABAA receptors and thus interferes with the excitation/inhibition balance. This cellular phenotype is accompanied by an increased resistance to epilepsy and an impairment of only a specific hippocampal-dependent fear conditioning. From a clinical perspective, our results identify eEF2K as a potential novel target for antiepileptic drugs, since pharmacological and genetic inhibition of eEF2K can revert the epileptic phenotype in a mouse model of human epilepsy.

Repeated Exposure to D-Amphetamine Decreases Global Protein Synthesis and Regulates the Translation of a Subset of mRNAs in the Striatum

Repeated psychostimulant exposure induces persistent gene expression modifications that contribute to enduring changes in striatal GABAergic spiny projecting neurons (SPNs). However, it remains unclear whether changes in the control of mRNA translation are required for the establishment of these durable modifications. Here we report that repeated exposure to D-amphetamine decreases global striatal mRNA translation. This effect is paralleled by an enhanced phosphorylation of the translation factors, eIF2α and eEF2, and by the concomitant increased translation of a subset of mRNAs, among which the mRNA encoding for the activity regulated cytoskeleton-associated protein, also known as activity regulated gene 3.1 (Arc/Arg3.1). The enrichment of Arc/Arg3.1 mRNA in the polysomal fraction is accompanied by a robust increase of Arc/Arg3.1 protein levels within the striatum. Immunofluorescence analysis revealed that this increase occurred preferentially in D1R-expressing SPNs localized in striosome compartments. Our results suggest that the decreased global protein synthesis following repeated exposure to D-amphetamine favors the translation of a specific subset of mRNAs in the striatum.

ASIC1a regulates insular long-term depression and is required for the extinction of conditioned taste aversion

Acid-sensing ion channel 1a (ASIC1a) has been shown to play important roles in synaptic plasticity, learning and memory. Here we identify a crucial role for ASIC1a in long-term depression (LTD) at mouse insular synapses. Genetic ablation and pharmacological inhibition of ASIC1a reduced the induction probability of LTD without affecting that of long-term potentiation in the insular cortex. The disruption of ASIC1a also attenuated the extinction of established taste aversion memory without altering the initial associative taste learning or its long-term retention. Extinction of taste aversive memory led to the reduced insular synaptic efficacy, which precluded further LTD induction. The impaired LTD and extinction learning in ASIC1a null mice were restored by virus-mediated expression of wild-type ASIC1a, but not its ion-impermeable mutant, in the insular cortices. Our data demonstrate the involvement of an ASIC1a-mediated insular synaptic depression mechanism in extinction learning, which raises the possibility of targeting ASIC1a to manage adaptive behaviours.

The acid-sensing ion channel, ASIC1a, is known to play a role in synaptic transmission and plasticity. Here, the authors demonstrate a role for ASIC1a in regulating plasticity in the insular cortex and find that extinction of conditioned taste aversion memory is disrupted in the ASIC1a knockout mice.

Temporal phases of long-term potentiation (LTP): myth or fact?

Long-term potentiation (LTP) remains the most widely accepted model for learning and memory. In accordance with this belief, the temporal differentiation of LTP into early and late phases is accepted as reflecting the differentiation of short-term and long-term memory. Moreover, during the past 30 years, protein synthesis inhibitors have been used to separate the early, protein synthesis-independent (E-LTP) phase and the late, protein synthesis-dependent (L-LTP) phase. However, the role of these proteins has not been formally identified. Additionally, several reports failed to show an effect of protein synthesis inhibitors on LTP. In this review, a detailed analysis of extensive behavioral and electrophysiological data reveals that the presumed correspondence of LTP temporal phases to memory phases is neither experimentally nor theoretically consistent. Moreover, an overview of the time courses of E-LTP in hippocampal slices reveals a wide variability ranging from <1 h to more than 5 h. The existence of all these conflictual findings should lead to a new vision of LTP. We believe that the E-LTP vs. L-LTP distinction, established with protein synthesis inhibitor studies, reflects a false dichotomy. We suggest that the duration of LTP and its dependency on protein synthesis are related to the availability of a set of proteins at synapses and not to the de novo synthesis of plasticity-related proteins. This availability is determined by protein turnover kinetics, which is regulated by previous and ongoing electrical activities and by energy store availability.

mAChR-dependent decrease in proteasome activity in the gustatory cortex is necessary for novel taste learning

Regulation of protein degradation via the ubiquitin proteasome system is crucial for normal learning and synaptic plasticity processes. While some studies reveal that increased proteasome degradation is necessary for different types of learning, others suggest the proteasome to be a negative regulator of plasticity. We aim to understand the molecular and cellular processes taking place in the gustatory cortex (GC), which underlie appetitive and aversive forms of taste learning. Previously, we have shown that N-methyl d-aspartic acid receptor (NMDAR)-dependent upregulation of proteasome activity 4h after novel taste learning is necessary for the association of novel taste with malaise and formation of conditioned taste aversion (CTA). Here, we first identify a correlative increase in proteasome activity in the GC immediately after novel taste learning and study the upstream and downstream effectors of this modulated proteasome activity. Interestingly, proteasome-mediated degradation was reduced in the GC, 20min after novel taste consumption in a muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR)-dependent and NMDAR-independent manner. This reduction in protein degradation led to an increased amount of p70 S6 kinase (p70S6k), which was abolished in the presence of mAChR antagonist scopolamine. Infusion of lactacystin, a proteasome inhibitor, to the GC precluded the amnestic effect of scopolamine. This study shows for the first time that following novel taste learning there is a cortical, mAChR-dependent reduced proteasome activity that enables the memory of taste familiarity. Moreover, inhibition of degradation in the GC attenuates novel taste learning and of p70 S6 kinase correlative increased expression. These results shed light on the complex regulation of protein synthesis and degradation machineries in the cortex following novel taste experience.

Synaptic activation of ribosomal protein S6 phosphorylation occurs locally in activated dendritic domains

Previous studies have shown that induction of long-term potentiation (LTP) induces phosphorylation of ribosomal protein S6 (rpS6) in postsynaptic neurons, but the functional significance of rpS6 phosphorylation is poorly understood. Here, we show that synaptic stimulation that induces perforant path LTP triggers phosphorylation of rpS6 (p-rpS6) locally near active synapses. Using antibodies specific for phosphorylation at different sites (ser235/236 versus ser240/244), we show that strong synaptic activation led to dramatic increases in immunostaining throughout postsynaptic neurons with selectively higher staining for p-ser235/236 in the activated dendritic lamina. Following LTP induction, phosphorylation at ser235/236 was detectable by 5 min, peaked at 30 min, and was maintained for hours. Phosphorylation at both sites was completely blocked by local infusion of the NMDA receptor antagonist, APV. Despite robust induction of p-rpS6 following high frequency stimulation, assessment of protein synthesis by autoradiography revealed no detectable increases. Exploration of a novel environment led to increases in the number of p-rpS6-positive neurons throughout the forebrain in a pattern reminiscent of immediate early gene induction and many individual neurons that were p-rpS6-positive coexpressed Arc protein. Our results constrain hypotheses about the possible role of rpS6 phosphorylation in regulating postsynaptic protein synthesis during induction of synaptic plasticity.

Induction of eEF2-specific antitumor CTL responses in vivo by vaccination with eEF2-derived 9mer-peptides

Eukaryotic elongation factor 2 (eEF2) is an essential factor for protein synthesis. Previous studies have shown that the eEF2 gene was overexpressed and plays an oncogenic role in various types of cancers and that eEF2 gene product elicited both humoral immune responses to produce eEF2-specific IgG autoantibody in cancer-bearing individuals and cellular immune responses to induce eEF2 peptide-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) in vitro. The purpose of the present study was to induce eEF2-specific, antitumor CTL responses in vivo by vaccination with MHC class I-binding eEF2-derived peptide. First, two mouse MHC class I-restricted eEF2‑derived, 9-mer peptides, EF17 (17-25 aa, ANIRNMSVI) and EF180 (180-188 aa, RIVENVNVI) were identified as eEF2-specific CTL peptides, and mice were vaccinated intradermally eight times with either EF17 or EF180 peptide emulsified with Montanide ISA51 adjuvant. Cytotoxicity assay showed that eEF2-specific CTLs were induced in both EF17‑and EF180‑vaccinated mice, and histological study showed no detectable damage in the organs of these mice. Next, to examine in vivo antitumor effects of eEF2 peptide vaccination in a therapeutic model, mice were vaccinated four times with one each of the two eEF2 peptides at weekly intervals after implantation of eEF2-expressing leukemia cells. The vaccination with eEF2 peptides induced eEF2-specific CTLs and suppressed tumor growth, and disease-free survival was significantly longer in EF180-vaccinated mice compared to control mice. The survival was associated with the robustness of eEF2-specific CTL induction. These results indicate that vaccination with MHC class I-binding eEF2 peptide induced eEF2-targeting, antitumor CTL responses in vivo without damage to normal organs, which provided us a rationale for eEF2 peptide-based cancer immunotherapy.

Eukaryotic elongation factor 2 kinase regulates the synthesis of microtubule-related proteins in neurons

Modulation of the elongation phase of protein synthesis is important for numerous physiological processes in both neurons and other cell types. Elongation is primarily regulated via eukaryotic elongation factor 2 kinase (eEF2K). However, the consequence of altering eEF2K activity on the synthesis of specific proteins is largely unknown. Using both pharmacological and genetic manipulations of eEF2K combined with two protein‐labeling techniques, stable isotope labeling of amino acids in cell culture and bio‐orthogonal non‐canonical amino acid tagging, we identified a subset of proteins whose synthesis is sensitive to inhibition of eEF2K in murine primary cortical neurons. Gene ontology (GO) analyses indicated that processes related to microtubules are particularly sensitive to eEF2K inhibition. Our findings suggest that eEF2K likely contributes to neuronal function by regulating the synthesis of microtubule‐related proteins.

Modulation of the elongation phase of protein synthesis is important for numerous physiological processes in neurons. Here, using labeling of new proteins coupled with proteomic techniques in primary cortical neurons, we find that the synthesis of microtubule‐related proteins is up‐regulated by inhibition of elongation. This suggests that translation elongation is a key regulator of cytoskeletal dynamics in neurons.

A molecular mechanism underlying gustatory memory trace for an association in the insular cortex

Events separated in time are associatively learned in trace conditioning, recruiting more neuronal circuits and molecular mechanisms than in delay conditioning. However, it remains unknown whether a given sensory memory trace is being maintained as a unitary item to associate. Here, we used conditioned taste aversion learning in the rat model, wherein animals associate a novel taste with visceral nausea, and demonstrate that there are two parallel memory traces of a novel taste: a short-duration robust trace, lasting approximately 3 hr, and a parallel long-duration weak one, lasting up to 8 hr, and dependent on the strong trace for its formation. Moreover, only the early robust trace is maintained by a NMDAR-dependent CaMKII- AMPAR pathway in the insular cortex. These findings suggest that a memory trace undergoes rapid modifications, and that the mechanisms underlying trace associative learning differ when items in the memory are experienced at different time points.

Atypical PKCs in memory maintenance: the roles of feedback and redundancy

Memories that last a lifetime are thought to be stored, at least in part, as persistent enhancement of the strength of particular synapses. The synaptic mechanism of these persistent changes, late long-term potentiation (L-LTP), depends on the state and number of specific synaptic proteins. Synaptic proteins, however, have limited dwell times due to molecular turnover and diffusion, leading to a fundamental question: how can this transient molecular machinery store memories lasting a lifetime? Because the persistent changes in efficacy are synapse-specific, the underlying molecular mechanisms must to a degree reside locally in synapses. Extensive experimental evidence points to atypical protein kinase C (aPKC) isoforms as key components involved in memory maintenance. Furthermore, it is evident that establishing long-term memory requires new protein synthesis. However, a comprehensive model has not been developed describing how these components work to preserve synaptic efficacies over time. We propose a molecular model that can account for key empirical properties of L-LTP, including its protein synthesis dependence, dependence on aPKCs, and synapse-specificity. Simulations and empirical data suggest that either of the two aPKC subtypes in hippocampal neurons, PKMζ and PKCι/λ, can maintain L-LTP, making the system more robust. Given genetic compensation at the level of synthesis of these PKC subtypes as in knockout mice, this system is able to maintain L-LTP and memory when one of the pathways is eliminated.

Bidirectional regulation of eEF2 phosphorylation controls synaptic plasticity by decoding neuronal activity patterns

At the sensory-motor neuron synapse of Aplysia, either spaced or continuous (massed) exposure to serotonin (5-HT) induces a form of intermediate-term facilitation (ITF) that requires new protein synthesis but not gene transcription. However, spaced and massed ITF use distinct molecular mechanisms to maintain increased synaptic strength. Synapses activated by spaced applications of 5-HT generate an ITF that depends on persistent protein kinase A (PKA) activity, whereas an ITF produced by massed 5-HT depends on persistent protein kinase C (PKC) activity. In this study, we demonstrate that eukaryotic elongation factor 2 (eEF2), which catalyzes the GTP-dependent translocation of the ribosome during protein synthesis, acts as a biochemical sensor that is tuned to the pattern of neuronal stimulation. Specifically, we find that massed training leads to a PKC-dependent increase in phosphorylation of eEF2, whereas spaced training results in a PKA-dependent decrease in phosphorylation of eEF2. Importantly, by using either pharmacological or dominant-negative strategies to inhibit eEF2 kinase (eEF2K), we were able to block massed 5-HT-dependent increases in eEF2 phosphorylation and subsequent PKC-dependent ITF. In contrast, pharmacological inhibition of eEF2K during the longer period of time required for spaced training was sufficient to reduce eEF2 phosphorylation and induce ITF. Finally, we find that the massed 5-HT-dependent increase in synaptic strength requires translation elongation, but not translation initiation, whereas the spaced 5-HT-dependent increase in synaptic strength is partially dependent on translation initiation. Thus, bidirectional regulation of eEF2 is critical for decoding distinct activity patterns at synapses by activating distinct modes of translation regulation.

Dynamics of elongation factor 2 kinase regulation in cortical neurons in response to synaptic activity

The rapid regulation of cell signaling in response to calcium in neurons is essential for real-time processing of large amounts of information in the brain. A vital regulatory component, and one of the most energy-intensive biochemical processes in cells, is the elongation phase of mRNA translation, which is controlled by the Ca(2+)/CaM-dependent elongation factor 2 kinase (eEF2K). However, little is known about the dynamics of eEF2K regulation in neurons despite its established role in learning and synaptic plasticity. To explore eEF2K dynamics in depth, we stimulated synaptic activity in mouse primary cortical neurons. We find that synaptic activity results in a rapid, but transient, increase in eEF2K activity that is regulated by a combination of AMPA and NMDA-type glutamate receptors and the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MEK)/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) pathways. We then used computational modeling to test the hypothesis that considering Ca(2+)-coordinated MEK/ERK, mTORC1, and eEF2k activation is sufficient to describe the observed eEF2K dynamics. Although such a model could partially fit the empirical findings, it also suggested that a crucial positive regulator of eEF2K was also necessary. Through additional modeling and empirical evidence, we demonstrate that AMP kinase (AMPK) is also an important regulator of synaptic activity-driven eEF2K dynamics in neurons. Our combined modeling and experimental findings provide the first evidence that it is necessary to consider the combined interactions of Ca(2+) with MEK/ERK, mTORC1, and AMPK to adequately explain eEF2K regulation in neurons.

Translational control in synaptic plasticity and cognitive dysfunction

Activity-dependent changes in the strength of synaptic connections are fundamental to the formation and maintenance of memory. The mechanisms underlying persistent changes in synaptic strength in the hippocampus, specifically long-term potentiation and depression, depend on new protein synthesis. Such changes are thought to be orchestrated by engaging the signaling pathways that regulate mRNA translation in neurons. In this review, we discuss the key regulatory pathways that govern translational control in response to synaptic activity and the mRNA populations that are specifically targeted by these pathways. The critical contribution of regulatory control over new protein synthesis to proper cognitive function is underscored by human disorders associated with either silencing or mutation of genes encoding proteins that directly regulate translation. In light of these clinical implications, we also consider the therapeutic potential of targeting dysregulated translational control to treat cognitive disorders of synaptic dysfunction.

Duration of the unconditioned stimulus in appetitive conditioning of honeybees differentially impacts learning, long-term memory strength, and the underlying protein synthesis

This study examines the role of stimulus duration in learning and memory formation of honeybees (Apis mellifera). In classical appetitive conditioning honeybees learn the association between an initially neutral, conditioned stimulus (CS) and the occurrence of a meaningful stimulus, the unconditioned stimulus (US). Thereby the CS becomes a predictor for the US eliciting a conditioned response (CR). Here we study the role of US duration in classical conditioning by examining honeybees conditioned with different US durations. We quantify the CR during acquisition, memory retention, and extinction of the early long-term memory (eLTM), and examine the molecular mechanisms of eLTM by interfering with protein synthesis. We find that the US duration affects neither the probability nor the strength of the CR during acquisition, eLTM retention, and extinction 24 h after conditioning. However, we find that the resistance to extinction 24 h after conditioning is susceptible to protein synthesis inhibition depending on the US duration. We conclude that the US duration does not affect the predictability of the US but modulates the protein synthesis underlying the eLTM's strength. Thus, the US duration differentially impacts learning, eLTM strength, and its underlying protein synthesis.

Genetic or pharmacological reduction of PERK enhances cortical-dependent taste learning

Protein translation initiation is controlled by levels of eIF2α phosphorylation (p-eIF2α) on Ser51. In addition, increased p-eIF2α levels impair long-term synaptic plasticity and memory consolidation, whereas decreased levels enhance them. Levels of p-eIF2α are determined by four kinases, of which protein kinase RNA-activated (PKR), PKR-like endoplastic reticulum kinase (PERK), and general control nonderepressible 2 are extensively expressed in the mammalian mature brain. Following identification of PERK as the major kinase to determine basal levels of p-eIF2α in primary neuronal cultures, we tested its function as a physiological constraint of memory consolidation in the cortex, the brain structure suggested to store, at least in part, long-term memories in the mammalian brain. To that aim, insular cortex (IC)-dependent positive and negative forms of taste learning were used. Genetic reduction of PERK expression was accomplished by local microinfusion of a lentivirus harboring PERK Short hairpin RNA, and pharmacological inhibition was achieved by local microinfusion of a PERK-specific inhibitor (GSK2606414) to the rat IC. Both genetic reduction of PERK expression and pharmacological inhibition of its activity reduced p-eIF2α levels and enhanced novel taste learning and conditioned taste aversion, but not memory retrieval. Moreover, enhanced extinction was observed together with enhanced associative memory, suggesting increased cortical-dependent behavioral plasticity. The results suggest that, by phosphorylating eIF2α, PERK functions in the cortex as a physiological constraint of memory consolidation, and its downregulation serves as cognitive enhancement.

Dopamine-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of NR2B (Tyr1472) is essential for ERK1/2 activation and processing of novel taste information

Understanding the heterosynaptic interaction between glutamatergic and neuromodulatory synapses is highly important for revealing brain function in health and disease. For instance, the interaction between dopamine and glutamate neurotransmission is vital for memory and synaptic plasticity consolidation, and it is known to converge on extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)-MAPK signaling in neurons. Previous studies suggest that dopamine induces N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor phosphorylation at the NR2B Y1472 subunit, influencing receptor internalization at the synaptic plasma membrane. However, it is unclear whether this phosphorylation is upstream to and/or necessary for ERK1/2 activation, which is known to be crucial for synaptic plasticity and memory consolidation. Here, we tested the hypothesis that tyrosine phosphorylation of NR2B at Y1472 is correlated with ERK1/2 activation by dopamine and necessary for it as well. We find that dopamine receptor D1, but not D2, activates ERK1/2 and leads to NR2BY1472 phosphorylation in the mature hippocampus and cortex. Moreover, our results indicate that NR2B Y1472 phosphorylation is necessary for ERK1/2 activation. Importantly, application of dopamine or the D1 receptor agonist SKF38393 to hippocampal slices from NR2B F1472 mutant mice did not result in ERK1/2 activation, suggesting this site is not only correlated with ERK1/2 activation by dopamine stimulation, but also necessary for it. In addition, NR2B F1472 mice show impairment in learning of attenuation of taste neophobia but not associative taste learning. Our study shows that the dopaminergic and glutamatergic transmission converge on the NMDA receptor itself, at the Y1472 site of the NR2B subunit, and that this convergence is essential for ERK1/2 activation in the mature brain and for processing new sensory information in the cortex.

Eukaryotic elongation factor 2 kinase, an unusual enzyme with multiple roles

Eukaryotic elongation factor 2 kinase (eEF2K) is a member of the small group of atypical 'α-kinases'. It phosphorylates and inhibits eukaryotic elongation factor 2, to slow down the elongation stage of protein synthesis, which normally consumes a great deal of energy and amino acids. The activity of eEF2K is normally dependent on calcium ions and calmodulin. eEF2K is also regulated by a plethora of other inputs, including inhibition by signalling downstream of anabolic signalling pathways such as the mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1. Recent data show that eEF2K helps to protect cancer cells against nutrient starvation and is also cytoprotective in other settings, including hypoxia. Growing evidence points to roles for eEF2K in neurological processes such as learning and memory and perhaps in depression.

Taste familiarity is inversely correlated with Arc/Arg3.1 hemispheric lateralization

Biochemical, electrophysiological, and imaging studies suggest that the anterior part of the insular cortex (IC) serves as primary taste cortex, whereas fMRI studies in human propose that the anterior IC is also involved in processing of general novelty or saliency information. Here, we compared activity regulated cytoskeleton associated protein (Arc)/Arg3.1 protein levels in the rat IC following administration of familiar versus novel tastes. Surprisingly, there was no correlation between novel taste and Arc/Arg3.1 levels when measured as the sum of both left and right insular cortices. However, when left and right IC were examined separately, Arc/Arg3.1 level was lateralized following novel taste learning. Moreover, Arc/Arg3.1 lateralization was inversely correlated with taste familiarity, whereas the high lateralization of Arc/Arg3.1 expression observed following novel taste learning is reduced proportionally to the increment in taste familiarity. In addition, unilateral inhibition of protein synthesis in the IC had asymmetrical effect on memory, inducing strong memory impairment similarly to bilateral inhibition or memory preservation, indicating that hemispheric lateralization is central for processing taste saliency information. These results provide indications, at the gene level of expression, for the role of IC lateralization in processing novel taste information and for the asymmetrical contribution of protein synthesis in each hemisphere during memory consolidation.

Extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activity during sleep consolidates cortical plasticity in vivo

Ocular dominance plasticity (ODP) in the cat primary visual cortex (V1) is induced during waking by monocular deprivation (MD) and consolidated during subsequent sleep. The mechanisms underlying this process are incompletely understood. Extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) is activated in V1 during sleep after MD, but it is unknown whether ERK activation during sleep is necessary for ODP consolidation. We investigated the role of ERK in sleep-dependent ODP consolidation by inhibiting the ERK-activating enzyme MEK in V1 (via U0126) during post-MD sleep. ODP consolidation was then measured with extracellular microelectrode recordings. Western blot analysis was used to confirm the efficacy of U0126 and to examine proteins downstream of ERK. U0126 abolished ODP consolidation and reduced both phosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) and levels of the synaptic marker PSD-95. Furthermore, interfering with ERK-mediated translation by inhibiting MAP kinase-interacting kinase 1 (Mnk1) with CGP57380 mimicked the effects of U0126. These results demonstrate that ODP consolidation requires sleep-dependent activation of the ERK-Mnk1 pathway.

A recollection of mTOR signaling in learning and memory

Mechanistic target of rapamcyin (mTOR) is a central player in cell growth throughout the organism. However, mTOR takes on an additional, more specialized role in the developed neuron, where it regulates the protein synthesis-dependent, plastic changes underlying learning and memory. mTOR is sequestered in two multiprotein complexes (mTORC1 and mTORC2) that have different substrate specificities, thus allowing for distinct functions at synapses. We will examine how learning activates the mTOR complexes, survey the critical effectors of this pathway in the context of synaptic plasticity, and assess whether mTOR plays an instructive or permissive role in generating molecular memory traces.

Translation regulation in sleep: Making experience last

Sleep improves cognition and is necessary for normal brain plasticity, but the precise cellular and molecular mechanisms mediating these effects are unknown. At the molecular level, experience-dependent synaptic plasticity triggers new gene and protein expression necessary for long-lasting changes in synaptic strength.(1) In particular, translation of mRNAs at remodeling synapses is emerging as an important mechanism in persistent forms of synaptic plasticity in vitro and certain forms of memory consolidation.(2) We have previously shown that sleep is required for the consolidation of a canonical model of in vivo plasticity (i.e., ocular dominance plasticity [ODP] in the developing cat).(3) Using this model, we recently showed that protein synthesis during sleep participates in the consolidation process. We demonstrate that activation of the mammalian target of rapamycin [mTOR] pathway, an important regulator of translation initiation,(4) is necessary for sleep-dependent ODP consolidation and that sleep promotes translation (but not transcription) of proteins essential for synaptic plasticity (i.e., ARC and BDNF). Our study thus reveals a previously unknown mechanism operating during sleep that consolidates cortical plasticity in vivo.

BDNF-induced local protein synthesis and synaptic plasticity

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is an important regulator of synaptic transmission and long-term potentiation (LTP) in the hippocampus and in other brain regions, playing a role in the formation of certain forms of memory. The effects of BDNF in LTP are mediated by TrkB (tropomyosin-related kinase B) receptors, which are known to be coupled to the activation of the Ras/ERK, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt and phospholipase C-γ (PLC-γ) pathways. The role of BDNF in LTP is best studied in the hippocampus, where the neurotrophin acts at pre- and post-synaptic levels. Recent studies have shown that BDNF regulates the transport of mRNAs along dendrites and their translation at the synapse, by modulating the initiation and elongation phases of protein synthesis, and by acting on specific miRNAs. Furthermore, the effect of BDNF on transcription regulation may further contribute to long-term changes in the synaptic proteome. In this review we discuss the recent progress in understanding the mechanisms contributing to the short- and long-term regulation of the synaptic proteome by BDNF, and the role in synaptic plasticity, which is likely to influence learning and memory formation. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'BDNF Regulation of Synaptic Structure, Function, and Plasticity'.

Blocking the eIF2α kinase (PKR) enhances positive and negative forms of cortex-dependent taste memory

Age-associated memory deterioration (and the decline in ability to acquire new information) is one of the major diseases of our era. Cognitive enhancement can be achieved by using psycho-stimulants, such as caffeine or nicotine, but very little is known about drugs that can enhance the consolidation phase of memories in the cortex, the brain structure considered to store, at least partially, long-term memories. We used cortex-dependent taste-learning paradigms to test the hypothesis that pharmacological manipulation of the translation initiation eIF2α, which plays a role in hippocampus-dependent memory, can enhance positive or negative forms of taste memories. We found that dephosphorylation (Ser51) of eIF2α, specifically in the cortex, is both correlated with and necessary for normal memory consolidation. To reduce eIF2α phosphorylation and improve memory consolidation, we pharmacologically inhibited one of the eIF2α kinases, PKR, which is known to be involved in brain aging and Alzheimer's disease. Systemic or local microinjection of PKR inhibitor to the gustatory cortex enhanced both positive and negative forms of taste memory in rats and mice. Our results provide clear evidence that PKR plays a major role in cortex-dependent memory consolidation and, therefore, that pharmacological inhibition of PKR is a potential target for drugs to enhance cognition.

Consolidation and translation regulation

mRNA translation, or protein synthesis, is a major component of the transformation of the genetic code into any cellular activity. This complicated, multistep process is divided into three phases: initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation is the step at which the ribosome is recruited to the mRNA, and is regarded as the major rate-limiting step in translation, while elongation consists of the elongation of the polypeptide chain; both steps are frequent targets for regulation, which is defined as a change in the rate of translation of an mRNA per unit time. In the normal brain, control of translation is a key mechanism for regulation of memory and synaptic plasticity consolidation, i.e., the off-line processing of acquired information. These regulation processes may differ between different brain structures or neuronal populations. Moreover, dysregulation of translation leads to pathological brain function such as memory impairment. Both normal and abnormal function of the translation machinery is believed to lead to translational up-regulation or down-regulation of a subset of mRNAs. However, the identification of these newly synthesized proteins and determination of the rates of protein synthesis or degradation taking place in different neuronal types and compartments at different time points in the brain demand new proteomic methods and system biology approaches. Here, we discuss in detail the relationship between translation regulation and memory or synaptic plasticity consolidation while focusing on a model of cortical-dependent taste learning task and hippocampal-dependent plasticity. In addition, we describe a novel systems biology perspective to better describe consolidation.

Post-transcriptional effects and interactions between chronic mild stress and acute sleep deprivation: regulation of translation factor and cytoplasmic polyadenylation element-binding protein phosphorylation

Stress and restricted or disrupted sleep trigger adaptive responses in the brain at the level of gene transcription. We investigated the possible impact of chronic mild stress (CMS), acute sleep deprivation, and a combination of these in male rats on post-transcriptional mechanisms important for cognitive function and synaptic plasticity. Relationships between sleep architecture and translational regulators were also assessed. After four weeks of CMS, phosphorylation of two key translation factors, eukaryotic initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) and elongation factor 2 (eEF2), was enhanced in the prefrontal cortex, but unchanged in the hippocampus and dentate gyrus. Sleep deprivation decreased phosphorylated eIF4E in the dentate gyrus. In contrast, eEF2 phosphorylation was elevated in all brain regions after sleep deprivation. Thus, CMS and sleep deprivation, when given alone, have distinct region-specific effects. Furthermore, the combined treatment revealed striking interactions with eEF2 phosphorylation in which sleep deprivation counteracts the effect of CMS cortically and CMS modulates the effects of sleep deprivation in the hippocampus proper. Although CMS exposure alone had no effect in the hippocampus, it inhibited the sleep deprivation-induced eIF4E phosphorylation, while inducing phosphorylation of a major regulatory RNA-binding protein, cytoplasmic polyadenylation element-binding protein (CPEB) in the combined treatment. CMS had no effect on plasma corticosterone, but led to disruption of sleep. Sleep quality and sleep quantity in non-stressed animals showed predictive changes in eIF4E and eEF2 phosphorylation cortically. Prior exposure to CMS abolishes this relationship. We conclude that CMS and acute sleep deprivation have interactive and brain region-specific effects on translational regulators of relevance to mechanisms of stress responsiveness and sleep homeostasis.

The role of protein phosphorylation in the gustatory cortex and amygdala during taste learning

Protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation form a major post-translation mechanism that enables a given cell to respond to ever-changing internal and external environments. Neurons, similarly to any other cells, use protein phosphorylation/dephosphorylation to maintain an internal homeostasis, but they also use it for updating the state of synaptic and intrinsic properties, following activation by neurotransmitters and growth factors. In the present review we focus on the roles of several families of kinases, phosphatases, and other synaptic-plasticity-related proteins, which activate membrane receptors and various intracellular signals to promote transcription, translation and protein degradation, and to regulate the appropriate cellular proteomes required for taste memory acquisition, consolidation and maintenance. Attention is especially focused on the protein phosphorylation state in two forebrain areas that are necessary for taste-memory learning and retrieval: the insular cortex and the amygdala. The various temporal phases of taste learning require the activation of appropriate waves of biochemical signals. These include: extracellular signal regulated kinase I and II (ERKI/II) signal transduction pathways; Ca(2+)-dependent pathways; tyrosine kinase/phosphatase-dependent pathways; brain-derived neurotrophicfactor (BDNF)-dependent pathways; cAMP-responsive element bindingprotein (CREB); and translation-regulation factors, such as initiation and elongation factors, and the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). Interestingly, coding of hedonic and aversive taste information in the forebrain requires activation of different signal transduction pathways.

Protein synthesis during sleep consolidates cortical plasticity in vivo

Sleep consolidates experience-dependent brain plasticity, but the precise cellular mechanisms mediating this process are unknown [1]. De novo cortical protein synthesis is one possible mechanism. In support of this hypothesis, sleep is associated with increased brain protein synthesis [2, 3] and transcription of messenger RNAs (mRNAs) involved in protein synthesis regulation [4, 5]. Protein synthesis in turn is critical for memory consolidation and persistent forms of plasticity in vitro and in vivo [6, 7]. However, it is unknown whether cortical protein synthesis in sleep serves similar functions. We investigated the role of protein synthesis in the sleep-dependent consolidation of a classic form of cortical plasticity in vivo (ocular dominance plasticity, ODP; [8, 9]) in the cat visual cortex. We show that intracortical inhibition of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)-dependent protein synthesis during sleep abolishes consolidation but has no effect on plasticity induced during wakefulness. Sleep also promotes phosphorylation of protein synthesis regulators (i.e., 4E-BP1 and eEF2) and the translation (but not transcription) of key plasticity related mRNAs (ARC and BDNF). These findings show that sleep promotes cortical mRNA translation. Interruption of this process has functional consequences, because it abolishes the consolidation of experience in the cortex.

Impaired associative taste learning and abnormal brain activation in kinase-defective eEF2K mice

Memory consolidation is defined temporally based on pharmacological interventions such as inhibitors of mRNA translation (molecular consolidation) or post-acquisition deactivation of specific brain regions (systems level consolidation). However, the relationship between molecular and systems consolidation are poorly understood. Molecular consolidation mechanisms involved in translation initiation and elongation have previously been studied in the cortex using taste-learning paradigms. For example, the levels of phosphorylation of eukaryotic elongation factor 2 (eEF2) were found to be correlated with taste learning in the gustatory cortex (GC), minutes following learning. In order to isolate the role of the eEF2 phosphorylation state at Thr-56 in both molecular and system consolidation, we analyzed cortical-dependent taste learning in eEF2K (the only known kinase for eEF2) ki mice, which exhibit reduced levels of eEF2 phosphorylation but normal levels of eEF2 and eEF2K. These mice exhibit clear attenuation of cortical-dependent associative, but not of incidental, taste learning. In order to gain a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms, we compared brain activity as measured by MEMRI (manganese-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging) between eEF2K ki mice and WT mice during conditioned taste aversion (CTA) learning and observed clear differences between the two but saw no differences under basal conditions. Our results demonstrate that adequate levels of phosphorylation of eEF2 are essential for cortical-dependent associative learning and suggest that malfunction of memory processing at the systems level underlies this associative memory impairment.

Molecular mechanisms underlying memory consolidation of taste information in the cortex

The senses of taste and odor are both chemical senses. However, whereas an organism can detect an odor at a relatively long distance from its source, taste serves as the ultimate proximate gatekeeper of food intake: it helps in avoiding poisons and consuming beneficial substances. The automatic reaction to a given taste has been developed during evolution and is well adapted to conditions that may occur with high probability during the lifetime of an organism. However, in addition to this automatic reaction, animals can learn and remember tastes, together with their positive or negative values, with high precision and in light of minimal experience. This ability of mammalians to learn and remember tastes has been studied extensively in rodents through application of reasonably simple and well defined behavioral paradigms. The learning process follows a temporal continuum similar to those of other memories: acquisition, consolidation, retrieval, relearning, and reconsolidation. Moreover, inhibiting protein synthesis in the gustatory cortex (GC) specifically affects the consolidation phase of taste memory, i.e., the transformation of short- to long-term memory, in keeping with the general biochemical definition of memory consolidation. This review aims to present a general background of taste learning, and to focus on recent findings regarding the molecular mechanisms underlying taste–memory consolidation in the GC. Specifically, the roles of neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, immediate early genes, and translation regulation are addressed.

Mitogen-activated protein kinase in the amygdala plays a critical role in lithium chloride-induced taste aversion learning

The intracellular mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway in the brain is necessary for the formation of a variety of memories including conditioned taste aversion (CTA) learning. However, the functional role of MAPK activation in the amygdala during lithium chloride (LiCl)-induced CTA learning has not been established. In the present study, we investigated if local microinjection of SL327, a MAPK kinase inhibitor, into the rat amygdala could alleviate LiCl-induced CTA learning. Our results revealed that acute administration of a high dose of LiCl (0.15M, 12 ml/kg, i.p.) rapidly increased the level of phosphorylated MAPK (pMAPK)-positive cells in the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) and nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) of rats as measured by immunohistochemistry. Local microinjection of SL327 (1 μg/0.5 μl/hemisphere) into the CeA 10 min before LiCl administration decreased both the strength of LiCl-induced CTA paired with 0.125% saccharin and the level of LiCl-induced pMAPK-positive cells in the CeA, but not in the NTS. Our data suggest that the intracellular signaling cascade of the MAPK pathway in the CeA plays a critical role in the processing of visceral information induced by LiCl for CTA learning.

Virally mediated gene manipulation in the adult CNS

Understanding how the CNS functions poses one of the greatest challenges in modern life science and medicine. Studying the brain is especially challenging because of its complexity, the heterogeneity of its cellular composition, and the substantial changes it undergoes throughout its life-span. The complexity of adult brain neural networks results also from the diversity of properties and functions of neuronal cells, governed, inter alia, by temporally and spatially differential expression of proteins in mammalian brain cell populations. Hence, research into the biology of CNS activity and its implications to human and animal behavior must use novel scientific tools. One source of such tools is the field of molecular genetics—recently utilized more and more frequently in neuroscience research. Transgenic approaches in general, and gene targeting in rodents have become fundamental tools for elucidating gene function in the CNS. Although spectacular progress has been achieved over recent decades by using these approaches, it is important to note that they face a number of restrictions. One of the main challenges is presented by the temporal and spatial regulation of introduced genetic manipulations. Viral vectors provide an alternative approach to temporally regulated, localized delivery of genetic modifications into neurons. In this review we describe available technologies for gene transfer into the adult mammalian CNS that use both viral and non-viral tools. We discuss viral vectors frequently used in neuroscience, with emphasis on lentiviral vector (LV) systems. We consider adverse effects of LVs, and the use of LVs for temporally and spatially controllable manipulations. Especially, we highlight the significance of viral vector-mediated genetic manipulations in studying learning and memory processes, and how they may be effectively used to separate out the various phases of learning: acquisition, consolidation, retrieval, and maintenance.

Intracellular calcium chelation and pharmacological SERCA inhibition of Ca2+ pump in the insular cortex differentially affect taste aversive memory formation and retrieval

Variation in intracellular calcium concentration regulates the induction of long-term synaptic plasticity and is associated with a variety of memory/retrieval and learning paradigms. Accordingly, impaired calcium mobilization from internal deposits affects synaptic plasticity and cognition in the aged brain. During taste memory formation several proteins are modulated directly or indirectly by calcium, and recent evidence suggests the importance of calcium buffering and the role of intracellular calcium deposits during cognitive processes. Thus, the main goal of this research was to study the consequence of hampering changes in cytoplasmic calcium and inhibiting SERCA activity by BAPTA-AM and thapsigargin treatments, respectively, in the insular cortex during different stages of taste memory formation. Using conditioned taste aversion (CTA), we found differential effects of BAPTA-AM and thapsigargin infusions before and after gustatory stimulation, as well as during taste aversive memory consolidation; BAPTA-AM, but not thapsigargin, attenuates acquisition and/or consolidation of CTA, but neither compound affects taste aversive memory retrieval. These results point to the importance of intracellular calcium dynamics in the insular cortex during different stages of taste aversive memory formation.

Compartment-specific, differential regulation of eukaryotic elongation factor 2 and its kinase within Aplysia sensory neurons

Long-term facilitation (LTF) in Aplysia is a leading model for elucidating the biochemical mechanisms of synaptic plasticity underlying learning. LTF requires translational control downstream of target of rapamycin complex 1. Our lab has previously shown that treatment with the facilitating neurotransmitter, 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), causes a target of rapamycin complex 1-mediated decrease in phosphorylation of eukaryotic elongation factor 2 (eEF2) within the neurites of sensory neurons involved in LTF. Here, we characterize the Aplysia orthologue of eEF2 kinase (eEF2K). We show that the Aplysia eEF2K orthologue contains an S6 kinase phosphorylation site and that a serine-to-alanine mutation at this site blocks the ability of 5-HT to decrease eEF2 phosphorylation in neurites. We also show that within the soma, 5-HT has the opposite effect, decreasing eEF2K phosphorylation at the S6 kinase site and, concomitantly, increasing eEF2 phosphorylation. Surprisingly, while eEF2K over-expression inhibits translation of a marker for internal ribosome entry site-dependent translation, it stimulates the translation of a marker for cap-dependent translation. This study demonstrates that eEF2 is differentially regulated in separate compartments and contributes to a growing body of evidence that inhibition of elongation can stimulate the translation of certain transcripts.

Synaptic activity controls dendritic spine morphology by modulating eEF2-dependent BDNF synthesis

Activity-dependent changes in synaptic structure and spine morphology are required for learning and memory, and depend on protein translation. We show that the kinase for eukaryotic elongation factor 2 (eEF2K) regulates dendritic spine stability and synaptic structure by modulating activity-dependent dendritic BDNF synthesis. Specifically RNAi knockdown of eEF2K reduces dendritic spine stability and inhibits dendritic BDNF protein expression; whereas overexpression of a constitutively activated eEF2K induces spine maturation and increases expression of dendritic BDNF. Furthermore, BDNF overexpression rescues the spine stability reduced by RNAi knockdown of eEF2K. We also show that synaptic activity-dependent spine maturation and dendritic BDNF protein expression depend on mGluR/EF2K-induced eEF2 phosphorylation. We propose that the eEF2K/eEF2 pathway is a key biochemical sensor that couple neuronal activity to spine plasticity, by controlling the dendritic translation of BDNF.

c-Fos expression is elevated in GABAergic interneurons of the gustatory cortex following novel taste learning

Long-term sensory memories are considered to be stored in the relevant cortical region subserving the given modality. We and others have recently identified a series of molecular alterations in the gustatory cortex (GC) of the rat at different time intervals following novel taste learning. Some of these correlative modifications were also necessary for taste memory acquisition and/or consolidation. However, very little is known about the localization of these molecular modifications within the GC or about the functional activation of the GC hours after novel taste learning. Here, we hypothesize that inhibitory interneurons are activated in the GC on a scale of hours following learning and used c-Fos expression and confocal microscopy with different markers to test this hypothesis. We found that GABAergic interneurons are activated in the GC in correlation with novel taste learning. The activation was evident in the deep but not superficial layers of the dysgranular insular cortex. These results suggest that the GABAergic machinery in the deep layers of the GC participates in the processing of taste information hours after learning, and provide evidence for the involvement of a local cortical circuit not only during acquisition of new information but also during off-line processing and consolidation of taste information.