The validity and structure of culture-level personality scores: data from ratings of young adolescents

Meta-Analytic Review of Temperamental Correlates of the Five-Factor Model and Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology Domains

Background

There is little and heterogeneous knowledge on the links between the temperamental predispositions of psychopathology and the contemporary dimensional models of psychopathology, such as the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) classification system, which can be aligned with the five-factor model (FFM) of personality. This meta-analysis seeks to expand the temperamental theoretical basis of the HiTOP model by incorporating associations of temperament traits of two temperamental theories measured, respectively, by the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) and the Temperament Evaluation of Memphis, Pisa, Paris, and San Diego Autoquestionnaire (TEMPS-A) with (a) the FFM's personality domains and (b) HiTOP's five psychopathological spectra.

Methods

A systematic search was done on Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, ProQuest, Cochrane Database, and Google Scholar for all articles published in English from January 1990 to August 2020. Because of heterogeneity in the results of almost 70% of studies, pooled estimates of correlation coefficients were calculated using the random-effects method. Risk of bias (low-quality studies) and publication bias are reported.

Results

The pooled correlations obtained from the analysis of 35 studies showed that the temperamental profile associated with each FFM domain and HiTOP spectra is distinct. Specifically, TCI-harm avoidance (HA) and all TEMPS temperaments were more strongly related to neuroticism/internalizing, extraversion/low detachment, and conscientiousness/disinhibition. In contrast, TCI-novelty seeking was more strongly related to both disinhibited/antagonistic externalizing and thought disorder.

Conclusions

A large body of research supports maladaptive variants of all FFM domains and some psychopathological spectra of HiTOP related to the abnormal-range temperaments.

National character stereotypes mirror language use: A study of Canadian and American tweets

National character stereotypes, or beliefs about the personality characteristics of the members of a nation, present a paradox. Such stereotypes have been argued to not be grounded in the actual personality traits of members of nations, yet they are also prolific and reliable. Stereotypes of Canadians and Americans exemplify the paradox; people in both nations strongly believe that the personality profiles of typical Canadians and Americans diverge, yet aggregated self-reports of personality profiles of Canadians and Americans show no reliable differences. We present evidence that the linguistic behavior of nations mirrors national character stereotypes. Utilizing 40 million tweets from the microblogging platform Twitter, in Study 1A we quantify the words and emojis diagnostic of Canadians and Americans. In Study 1B we explore the positivity of national language use. In Studies 2A and 2B, we present the 120 most nationally diagnostic words and emojis of each nation to naive participants, and ask them to assess personality of a hypothetical person who uses either diagnostically Canadian or American words and emojis. Personality profiles derived from the diagnostic words of each nation bear close resemblance to national character stereotypes. We therefore propose that national character stereotypes may be partially grounded in the collective linguistic behaviour of nations.

Revealed Traits: A Novel Method for Estimating Cross-Cultural Similarities and Differences in Personality

Cross-cultural research on personality has often led to surprising and countertheoretical findings, which have led to concerns over the validity of country-level estimates of personality (e.g., Heine, Buchtel, & Norenzayan, 2008). The present study explores how cross-cultural differences can be indexed via revealed trait estimates, which index the personality traits of individuals or groups indirectly through their likelihood of responding in particular ways to particular situations. In two studies, we measure self-reports of personality, revealed traits, and revealed preferences for different expected effects (e.g., experiencing excitement) of two cultural groups (U.S. and Singaporean participants). We found typical East–West differences in personality using self-report scales, such as lower levels of Conscientiousness- and Extraversion-related characteristics among Singaporean participants relative to U.S. participants. We found evidence of scale use extremity differences in self-report personality scales but not in revealed trait estimates. Using revealed traits, we found evidence of strikingly high levels of similarity in terms of overall action endorsement, revealed trait estimates, and revealed preferences. However, this was qualified by consistent differences in revealed trait estimates of Extraversion-related characteristics and less consistent differences in revealed trait estimates of Conscientiousness-related characteristics. We also found consistent differences in preferences for different expected effects; for example, Singaporean participants reported lower likelihood of performing actions expected to result in experiencing stimulation or excitement than U.S. participants. Results suggest that similarities in action endorsements and revealed traits may be driven by common preferences for social inclusion and benevolence, and differences may be driven by differing preferences for expending effort, experiencing stimulation, and social attention.

The relations between conscientiousness and mental health in a North-European and a West-Asian culture

BACKGROUND

The relationship between conscientiousness, mental health and mental illness has been an issue for the last two decades.

AIMS

By using a dual model of mental health, the present study examined a non-linear relationship between conscientiousness and healthy or non-healthy symptoms in two different cultures.

METHOD

Participants in this study were 296 Iranian and 310 Swedish university students (18-24 years of age). We used two different conscientiousness scales; the 12-item conscientiousness subscale of the NEO/FFI as an imported (etic) scale, and a 10-item Iranian conscientiousness scale as an indigenous (emic) and culture-dependent scale.

RESULTS

In both conscientiousness scales, multivariate analysis of variance showed that conscientiousness differentiated among four mental health groups (languishing, troubled, symptomatic and flourishing), although languishing and troubled individuals were less conscientious than flourishing and symptomatic individuals. Furthermore, the non-healthy symptomatic individuals were more conscientiousness than flourishing individuals. The results showed no significant differences between the two cultures in terms of the four mental health categories.

CONCLUSIONS

It was concluded that the relationship between conscientiousness and mental health/mental illness is more a non-linear relationship than a linear one.

The Inaccuracy of National Character Stereotypes

Consensual stereotypes of some groups are relatively accurate, whereas others are not. Previous work suggesting that national character stereotypes are inaccurate has been criticized on several grounds. In this article we (a) provide arguments for the validity of assessed national mean trait levels as criteria for evaluating stereotype accuracy; and (b) report new data on national character in 26 cultures from descriptions (N=3,323) of the typical male or female adolescent, adult, or old person in each. The average ratings were internally consistent and converged with independent stereotypes of the typical culture member, but were weakly related to objective assessments of personality. We argue that this conclusion is consistent with the broader literature on the inaccuracy of national character stereotypes.

Exploring trait assessment of samples, persons, and cultures

I present a very broad overview of what I have learned about personality trait assessment at different levels and offer some views on future directions for research and clinical practice. I review some basic principles of scale development and argue that internal consistency has been overemphasized; more attention to retest reliability is needed. Because protocol validity is crucial for individual assessment and because validity scales have limited utility, I urge combining assessments from multiple informants, and I present some statistical tools for that purpose. As culture-level traits, I discuss ethos, national character stereotypes, and aggregated personality traits, and summarize evidence for the validity of the latter. Our understanding of trait profiles of cultures is limited, but it can guide future exploration.

Acculturation of Personality: A Three-Culture Study of Japanese, Japanese Americans, and European Americans

The present study tests the hypothesis that involvement with a new culture instigates changes in personality of immigrants that result in (a) better fit with the norms of the culture of destination and (b) reduced fit with the norms of the culture of origin. Participants were 40 Japanese first-generation immigrants to the United States, 57 Japanese monoculturals, and 60 U.S. monoculturals. All participants completed the Jackson Personality Inventory (JPI) as a measure of the Big Five; immigrants completed the Japanese American Acculturation Scale. Immigrants' fits with the cultures of destination and origin were calculated by correlating Japanese American mothers' patterns of ratings on the Big Five with the average patterns of ratings of European Americans and Japanese on the same personality dimensions. Japanese Americans became more "American" and less "Japanese" in their personality as they reported higher participation in the U.S. culture. The results support the view that personality can be subject to cultural influence.

Early Temperament in Japan, the United States, and Russia

The present study addressed differences in infant and toddler temperament, utilizing translations of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire–Revised (IBQ-R) and the Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire (ECBQ), for children growing up in the United States, Russia, and Japan. Results indicated a number of significant differences in higher-order dimensions and fine-grained components of early temperament between the three cultural groups. U.S. children scored higher for Surgency and related traits, compared to Japanese and Russian children; Negative Affectivity showed the opposite pattern of cross-cultural differences, wherein Japanese children received the highest scores from their caregivers. In addition, Japanese infants and toddlers scored lower for Effortful Control. Significant Culture × Age interactions indicated that patterns of cross-cultural differences in different age groups varied across and within the three higher-order dimensions. Surgency, as well as positive affect to both low and high levels of intensity, showed a consistent pattern of decreasing cultural differences with age.

Linkage between the midline cortical serotonergic system and social behavior traits: positron emission tomography studies of common marmosets

Serotonin is known to play an important role not only in regulating emotional behaviors, but also in the formation of social behavior traits. To determine the location and serotonin function of brain areas involved in social behavior traits, we tested serotonin transporter (SERT) binding and neural activity linked with the social behaviors of common marmosets with positron emission tomography using [(11)C]-3-amino-4-(2-dimetylaminomethyl-phenylsulfanyl)-benzonitrile and [(18)F]fluorodeoxyglucose, respectively. Factor analysis of behavioral measures during a direct encounter between unfamiliar adult males identified three classes of social behavioral traits: (1) aggressive, (2) anxious, and (3) unfriendly (opposite of friendly). Voxel-based analysis revealed a significant association between SERT binding with the social behavioral traits in the midline cortical subregions. Aggressive and friendly traits are localized to the posterior cingulate cortex, and the anxious trait is localized to the anterior cingulate cortex. In addition, neural activity and functional connectivity of the posterior and anterior cingulate cortices appear to be altered depending on the social situation. These results suggest that the midline cortical serotonergic system is crucial in social behavior traits and its subregions are functionally segregated in socio-emotional processing.

Perceiving One’s Own and Others’ Feelings Around the World

The present study examined meta-mood variables pertaining to beliefs about the perception of one’s own and other people’s feelings across nations. A total of 9,102 college students from 42 nations provided self-reports of attention to and clarity of their own feelings, attention to and clarity of others’ feelings, and the cognitive (life satisfaction) and the affective (affect balance) component of subjective well-being (SWB). Multilevel analyses tested whether nations differed in the relations between meta-mood variables and SWB and whether the cultural dimension of individualism-collectivism moderated these relations. Attention to own feelings demonstrated a heterogeneous relation with SWB across nations. Clarity of own feelings showed an adaptive pattern in nearly all nations, but it was more closely related to SWB in individualistic than in collectivistic nations. Attention to others’ feelings demonstrated low positive relations with SWB in most nations. Unexpectedly, clarity of others’ feelings tended to be less important to affect balance in collectivistic than in individualistic nations. The results suggest that although beliefs about clearly perceiving own and others’ feelings might, to some degree, be universally adaptive, cultural differences appear to exist in how relevant the perception of feelings is to SWB.

BDNF Val66Met is associated with introversion and interacts with 5-HTTLPR to influence neuroticism

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) regulates synaptic plasticity and neurotransmission, and has been linked to neuroticism, a major risk factor for psychiatric disorders. A recent genome-wide association (GWA) scan, however, found the BDNF Val66Met polymorphism (rs6265) associated with extraversion but not with neuroticism. In this study, we examine the links between BDNF and personality traits, assessed using the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R), in a sample from SardiNIA (n=1560) and the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging (BLSA; n=1131). Consistent with GWA results, we found that BDNF Met carriers were more introverted. By contrast, in both samples and in a meta-analysis inclusive of published data (n=15251), we found no evidence for a main effect of BDNF Val66Met on neuroticism. Finally, on the basis of recent reports of an epistatic effect between BDNF and the serotonin transporter, we explored a Val66Met x 5-HTTLPR interaction in a larger SardiNIA sample (n=2333). We found that 5-HTTLPR LL carriers scored lower on neuroticism in the presence of the BDNF Val variant, but scored higher on neuroticism in the presence of the BDNF Met variant. Our findings support the association between the BDNF Met variant and introversion and suggest that BDNF interacts with the serotonin transporter gene to influence neuroticism.