The Global Temperament Project: Parent-reported temperament in infants, toddlers, and children from 59 nations

Data from 83,423 parent reports of temperament (surgency, negative affectivity, and regulatory capacity) in infants, toddlers, and children from 341 samples gathered in 59 countries were used to investigate the relations among culture, gender, and temperament. Between-nation differences in temperament were larger than those obtained in similar studies of adult personality, and most pronounced for negative affectivity. Nation-level patterns of negative affectivity were consistent across infancy, toddlerhood, and childhood, and patterns of regulatory capacity were consistent between infancy and toddlerhood. Nations that previously reported high extraversion, high conscientiousness, and low neuroticism in adults were found to demonstrate high surgency in infants and children, and countries reporting low adult openness and high adult neuroticism reported high temperamental negative affectivity. Negative affectivity was high in Southern Asia, Western Asia, and South America and low in Northern and Western Europe. Countries in which children were rated as high in negative affectivity had cultural orientations reflecting collectivism, high power distance, and short-term orientation. Surgency was high in Southeastern and Southern Asia and Southern Europe and low in Eastern Asian countries characterized by philosophies of long-term orientation. Low personal income was associated with high negative affectivity. Gender differences in temperament were largely consistent in direction with prior studies, revealing higher regulatory capacity in females than males and higher surgency in males than females, with these differences becoming more pronounced at later ages. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

A short executive functioning questionnaire in the context of early childhood screening: psychometric properties

Early childhood executive functioning (EF) predicts later adjustment and academic achievement. However, measuring EF consistently and efficiently across settings in early childhood can be challenging. Most researchers use task-based measures of EF, but these methods present practical challenges that impede implementation in some settings. The current study of 380 3-5-year-old children in the United States evaluated the psychometric properties of a new 14-item parent-reported measure of EF in a diverse urban school district. This questionnaire aimed to capture a normative range of EF skills in ecologically valid contexts. There was evidence for two specific subscales - one that measures children's EF challenges and another that measures children's EF skills. Results suggested that several items demonstrated differential item functioning by age and race. After adjusting for measurement differences across demographic groups and controlling for age at screening, the EF challenges subscale was more strongly related to task-based measures of EF than was the EF skills subscale. EF challenges predicted third-grade math achievement, controlling for demographic variables and a performance-based measure of children's early cognitive and academic skills. Results suggest that this parent report of EF could be a useful and effective early childhood screening tool.

Shoreline Drying of Microseira (Lyngbya) wollei Biomass Can Lead to the Release and Formation of Toxic Saxitoxin Analogues to the Water Column

The harmful, filamentous cyanobacteria Microseira (Lyngbya) wollei produces several toxic analogues of saxitoxin (Lyngbya wollei toxins 1-6, or LWTs 1-6), grows in shallow water, and can deposit significant biomass on nearby shorelines. Here, we show that the LWTs are stable in the biomass during subsequent drying but that the process facilitates the later release of LWTs upon return to the water column. Under basic conditions, LWTs hydrolyzed to generate products that were significantly more neurotoxic than the initial toxins. Aqueous LWTs were subjected to conditions of covarying temperature and pH, and their degradation rates and products were determined at each condition. LWTs 1, 5, and 6 degraded faster at pH ≥ 8 at all temperatures. Their degradation products, which included decarbamoyl saxitoxin and LWT 4, were consistent with a base-catalyzed hydrolysis mechanism and represented a net increase in total biomass toxicity normalized against the equivalent toxicity of saxitoxin. The corresponding pre-exponential terms and activation energies for hydrolysis were obtained for pH 6-10 over the temperature range 10-40 °C. A locally weighted scatterplot smoothing (LOWESS) regression was developed to predict the loss of parent toxins and subsequent products in the water column under conditions corresponding to those commonly encountered in cyanobacterial blooms.

Growth of the harmful benthic cyanobacterium Microseira wollei is driven by legacy sedimentary phosphorous

Models for cyanobacterial harmful algae blooms (cHABs) in fresh waters are usually predicated on the relationship between cyanobacterial ecology and dissolved nutrients, particularly phosphorous. Here we show legacy sediment-associated phosphorous as the primary driver of a benthic cHAB, not phosphorous in the water column. Biogeographical surveys by teams of citizen science volunteers working with the University of South Carolina identified over 200 distinct mats of Microseira wollei in Lake Wateree, SC based on toxin characterization. In sum these were estimated to affect approximately 175 km of the lake's shoreline. This growth occurred under water quality conditions that were near or below the regulatory total maximum daily load for phosphorous and nitrogen. A series of established predictive models for cyanobacterial biomass growth were applied retroactively to match the measured growth with measured water quality parameters. The only component of the system that successfully predicted microbial biomass was sedimentary phosphorous. Concentrations of the Lyngbya wollei toxins (LWTs) 1, 4, 5, and 6 were determined at multiple sites over an 18-month period and a toxin inventory for the lake was calculated. Toxin profiles between sites differed at the 95% level of confidence, establishing each site as a unique mat. An empirical model of toxin production potential based on sedimentary phosphorous was developed.

Microseira wollei and Phormidium algae more than doubles DBP concentrations and calculated toxicity in drinking water

Warm weather and excess nutrients from agricultural runoff trigger harmful algal blooms, which can affect drinking water safety due to the presence of algal toxins and the formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs) during drinking water treatment. In this study, 66 priority, unregulated and regulated DBPs were quantified in chlorinated controlled laboratory reactions of harmful algae Microseira wollei (formerly known as Lyngbya wollei) and Phormidium using gas chromatography (GC)-mass spectrometry (MS). Live algae samples collected from algae-impacted lakes in South Carolina were chlorinated in both ultrapure water and real source waters containing natural organic matter. DBPs were also measured in finished water from a real drinking water plant impacted by a Microseira bloom. Results show that the presence of Microseira and Phormidium more than doubles total concentrations of DBPs formed by chlorination, with levels up to 586 μg/L formed in natural lake waters. Toxic nitrogen-containing DBPs also more than doubled in concentration, with levels up to 36.1, 3.6, and 37.9 μg/L for haloacetamides, halonitromethanes, and haloacetonitriles, respectively. In ultrapure water, DBPs also formed up to 314 μg/L when algae was chlorinated, demonstrating their ability to serve as direct precursors for these DBPs. When environmentally relevant levels of bromide and iodide were added to chlorination reactions, total DBPs increased 144, 51, and 24% for drinking water reservoir, Lake Marion and Lake Wateree Microseira respectively and 29% for Phormidium. Iodo-DBPs, bromochloroiodomethane, chloroiodoacetic acid, bromoiodoacetic acid, and diiodoacetic acid were observed in finished water from a drinking water plant impacted by Microseira, and bromochloroiodomethane and dibromoiodomethane were observed in chlorinated ultrapure water containing algae, bromide, and iodide. Notably, total calculated cytotoxicity tripled in Microseira-impacted waters and doubled for Phormidium-impacted waters. Calculated genotoxicity doubled for Microseira-impacted waters and more than doubled in Phormidium-impacted waters. Haloacetonitriles were major drivers of calculated cytotoxicity in algae-impacted waters, while haloacetic acids were major drivers of calculated genotoxicity in algae-impacted waters. These results provide the most extensive assessment of DBPs formed from chlorination of algae-impacted waters and highlight potential impacts to drinking water and human health. Results from this study are particularly applicable to drinking water treatment plants that employ pre-chlorination, which can cause the release of algal organic matter (AOM) precursors to form DBPs.

Parity moderates the effect of delivery mode on maternal ratings of infant temperament

Objective

Cesarean section (CS) rates are rising rapidly around the world but no conclusive evidence has been obtained about the possible short- and long-term effects of CS on child behavior. We evaluated prospectively the association between CS and infant temperament across the first 9 postpartum months, controlling for indications for CS and investigating parity and infant sex as moderators.

Methods

The sample consisted of mothers and their healthy infants. Infant temperament was measured using the Infant Characteristics Questionnaire completed by the mothers at 6 weeks (n = 452) and 9 months (n = 258) postpartum. Mode of birth was classified into spontaneous vaginal birth (n = 347 for 6 weeks sample; 197 for 9 months sample), CS planned for medical reasons (n = 55; 28) and emergency CS (n = 50; 33).

Results

Multiple regression analysis revealed no main effects of birth mode, but showed a significant interaction between birth mode and parity indicating that emergency CS in firstborn infants was associated with more difficult temperament at 6 weeks. There were no significant associations between indications for CS and infant temperament, although breech presentation predicted difficult temperament at 9 months.

Conclusion

We largely failed to support the association between CS and infant temperament. Although our results suggest that emergency CS may be associated with temperament in firstborns, further research is needed to replicate this finding, preferably using observational measures to assess child temperament.

Cultural contributors to negative emotionality: A multilevel analysis from the Joint Effort Toddler Temperament Consortium

This study advances the cross-cultural temperament literature by comparing temperament ratings of toddlers from 14 nations. Multilevel modeling (MLM) procedures were utilized to regress negative emotionality (NE) and component subscales on Hofstede’s cultural value dimensions while controlling for age and gender. More individualistic values were associated with lower NE, and component discomfort, fear, motor activity, perceptual sensitivity, and soothability scales. The discomfort subscale was negatively associated with power distance and positively associated with masculine cultural values. Higher ratings of shyness were related to a more long-term cultural orientation. Results illustrate the feasibility of an MLM approach to cross-cultural research and provide a new perspective on the intersection of culture and temperament development. Limitations and future implications are discussed.

Social support buffers the effects of maternal prenatal stress on infants' unpredictability

OBJECTIVE

Exposure to stress in pregnancy has been shown to affect fetal development with short- and long-term physiological and behavioral consequences for the offspring. Although social support is known to lower perceived stress, no prior study has investigated the buffering role of social support in the context of prenatal stress effects on infant temperament. The aim of this study was to examine interactive effects of prenatal stress and social support on several dimensions of infant temperament at 9 months postpartum.

STUDY DESIGN

A total of 272 mothers completed the Perceived Stress Scale and the Perceived Social Support Scale in the 3rd trimester of pregnancy. Infant temperament was assessed by mothers at 9 months postpartum using the Infant Characteristics Questionnaire. Linear regression models were performed to assess the effects of perceived stress, social support, and their interaction on infant temperament.

RESULTS

Prenatal stress interacted with social support, such that prenatal stress increased infant unpredictability when social support was below -0.5 SD.

CONCLUSIONS

Prenatal stress was found to be a risk factor for infant temperamental unpredictability when combined with low social support perceived by the mother during pregnancy. Support of others, not previously examined in this context, can reduce the impact of prenatal stress.

Links between television exposure and toddler dysregulation: Does culture matter?

Television exposure in early childhood has increased, with concerns raised regarding adverse effects on social-emotional development, and emerging self-regulation in particular. The present study addressed television exposure (i.e., amount of time watching TV) and its associations with toddler behavioral/emotional dysregulation, examining potential differences across 14 cultures. The sample consisted of an average of 60 toddlers from each of the 14 countries from the Joint Effort Toddler Temperament Consortium (JETTC; Gartstein & Putnam, 2018). Analyses were conducted relying on the multi-level modeling framework (MLM), accounting for between- and within-culture variability, and examining the extent to which TV exposure contributions were universal vs. variable across sites. Effects of time watching TV were evaluated in relation to temperament reactivity and regulation, as well as measures of emotional reactivity, attention difficulties, and aggression. Results indicated that more time spent watching TV was associated with higher ratings on Negative Emotionality, emotional reactivity, aggression, and attention problems, as well as lower levels of soothability. However, links between TV exposure and both attention problems and soothability varied significantly between cultures. Taken together, results demonstrate that increased time spent watching television was generally associated with dysregulation, although effects were not consistently uniform, but rather varied as a function of culturally-dependent contextual factors.

Using the Very Short Form of the Children's Behavior Questionnaire for Spanish-Speaking Populations in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Psychometric Analysis of Dichotomized Variables

While the psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the Very Short Form of the Children’s Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ-VSF) have been assessed in the US and Europe in samples composed of middle- and high-income parents with high levels of education, no studies have tested the instrument in low-income Spanish-speaking populations living in low- and middle-income countries. To fill this gap, our cross-sectional study assessed the psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the CBQ-VSF version in a sample of 315 low-income and low-educated parents with preschool children living in the Caribbean Region of Colombia. While our findings revealed problems that were similar to those identified in previous assessments of the CBQ-VSF Spanish version, they also showed unique problems related to the sociodemographic characteristics of our sample, containing many individuals with a low income and low educational level. Most of the participants gave extreme responses, resulting in a notable kurtosis and skewness of the data. This article describes how we addressed these problems by dichotomizing the variables into binary categories. Additionally, it demonstrates that merely translating the CBQ-VSF is insufficient to be able to capture many of the underlying latent constructs associated with low-income and low-educated Latino/Hispanic populations.

Associations Between Mode of Birth and Neuropsychological Development in Children Aged 4 Years: Results from a Birth Cohort Study

The aim of this prospective longitudinal study was to examine the association between Cesarean section (CS) and child development and behavior. The sample consisted of 256 children who were born at term without serious perinatal pathologies. Their development and behavior was assessed at the age of four using Ages and Stages Questionnaire (ASQ-3), Children's Behavior Questionnaire and Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire. Multivariate linear regression analyses were conducted to assess the association between CS and child outcomes. CS was associated with better scores in the Problem Solving domain of the ASQ in the whole sample. After stratifying by child sex, the positive association between CS and the Problem Solving domain was significant in boys, while no association was found in girls. Girls were rated less optimally in the Gross Motor domain of the ASQ when born via CS. Mode of birth was not associated with behavioral outcomes.

Characterization of an Asphalt Binder and Photoproducts by Fourier Transform Ion Cyclotron Resonance Mass Spectrometry Reveals Abundant Water-Soluble Hydrocarbons

Road asphalt is comprised of aggregate (rocks) mixed with a binder composed of high-boiling petroleum-derived compounds, which have been thought to be relatively inert (unreactive) and thus leach small amounts of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) into water from the built environment. However, recent studies have demonstrated that petroleum readily undergoes photooxidation and generates water-soluble oxygen-containing hydrocarbons. Therefore, here, we investigate the effects of solar irradiation on an asphalt binder. Upon irradiation in a photooxidation microcosm, thin films of the asphalt binder produce abundant oil- and water-soluble oxygenated hydrocarbons, which we hypothesize are also leached from roads and highways through photooxidation reactions. Ultrahigh-resolution Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR MS) enables extensive compositional characterization of the virgin asphalt binder, irradiated asphalt binder, and the water-soluble photoproducts. The results reveal the production of water-soluble species that resemble the molecular composition of petroleum-derived dissolved organic matter, including abundant hydrocarbons and S-containing species with up to 18 oxygen atoms. The results also confirm photo-induced oxidation, fragmentation, and potentially polymerization as active processes involved in the production of water-soluble organic pollutants from asphalt.

Using item response theory to evaluate the Children's Behavior Questionnaire: Considerations of general functioning and assessment length

Although the Children's Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ; Rothbart, Ahadi, Hershey, & Fisher, 2001) is the most popular assessment for childhood temperament, its psychometric qualities have yet to be examined using Item Response Theory (IRT) methods. These methods highlight in detail the specific contributions of individual items for measuring different facets of temperament. Importantly, with 16 scales for tapping distinct aspects of child functioning (195 items total), the CBQ's length can be prohibitive in many contexts. The detailed information about item functioning provided by IRT methods is therefore especially useful. The current study used IRT methods to analyze the CBQ's 16 temperament scales and identify potentially redundant items. An abbreviated "IRT form" was generated based on these results and evaluated across four independent validation samples. The IRT form was compared to the original and short CBQ forms (Putnam & Rothbart, 2006). Results provide fine-grained detail on the CBQ's psychometric functioning and suggest it is possible to remove up to 39% of the original form's items while largely preserving the measurement precision and content coverage of each scale. This study provides considerable psychometric information about the CBQ's items and scales and highlights future avenues for creating even more efficient high-quality temperament assessments. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

ADHD and ODD Symptoms in Toddlers: Common and Specific Associations with Temperament Dimensions

The aim of this work was to study the relationship between temperament and signs of psychopathology in typically developing toddlers. More specifically, Attentional Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) symptoms were analyzed in connection with fine-grained temperament dimensions. The sample was composed of 65 toddlers aged between 18 and 35 months. Bivariate correlations showed that higher levels of negative emotionality and approach tendencies, and lower levels of inhibitory control, were related to more ADHD and ODD manifestations. Bivariate correlations also indicated unique associations: lower levels of soothability were associated with higher ODD symptoms, whereas lower attentional focusing and low-intensity pleasure were related with higher ADHD symptoms. Additionally, regression and path analysis models indicated that ADHD was predominantly associated with attentional focusing and motor activation whereas ODD was most closely related to frustration. Our findings highlight the relevance of studying early correlates of psychopathological manifestations to identify children who could benefit from prevention and early intervention programs.

Emerging Lyngbya wollei toxins: A new high resolution mass spectrometry method to elucidate a potential environmental threat

Mass spectrometric methods for the quantitative and qualitative analyses of algal biotoxins are often complicated by co-eluting compounds that present analytically as interferences. This issue is particularly critical for organic polyamines, where co-eluting materials can suppress the formation of cations during electrospray ionization. Here we present an extraction procedure designed specifically to overcome matrix-derived ion suppression of algal toxins in samples of Lyngbya wollei, a filamentous benthic algae known to produce several saxitoxin analogues. Lyngbya wollei samples were collected from a large, persistent harmful algal bloom in Lake Wateree, SC. Six known Lyngbya wollei-specific toxins (LWT1-6) were successfully resolved and quantified against saxitoxin using hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole and quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. The parent ions [M²⁺ - H⁺]⁺ were observed for LWTs 1-6 and the [M]²⁺ ion was observed for LWT5. High resolution mass spectra and unique fragmentation ions were obtained for LWTs 1-6. A dilution factor of 50 resulted in a linear calibration of saxitoxin in the algae matrix. Ion suppression was resolved by sample dilution, which led to linear, positive correlations between peak area and mass of the extracted sample (R² > 0.96). Optimized sample extraction method and instrument parameters are presented.

East-West, Collectivist-Individualist: A Cross-Cultural Examination of Temperament in Toddlers from Chile, Poland, South Korea, and the U.S

The present study examined toddler temperament across Chilean, South Korean, Polish, and US samples, providing an opportunity to examine both collectivist-individualist and East-West contrasts. The effect of culture on the three factor and 18 dimension scores provided by the Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire were investigated. Results provide evidence of cross-cultural differences between the four samples. Chilean toddlers scored significantly higher than US, Polish, and South Korean children on the overall factor of Negative Affectivity, as well as higher than the Polish and South Korean samples on the Surgency factor. South Korean toddlers scored significantly higher on the factor of Effortful Control, and two related dimensions, than US, Polish, or Chilean samples. Results are discussed in terms of the apparent roles of individualism/collectivism and East-West distinctions in shaping temperament development.

Exploring temperamental differences in infants from the United States of America (US) and the Netherlands

This longitudinal study employed the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised in assessing temperamental differences between infants at 6 months (n = 114 US, 184 Dutch) and 12 months (n = 92 US, 172 Dutch) from the United States of America and The Netherlands. Main effects indicated that Dutch infants were rated higher on the Orienting/Regulatory Capacity factor and fine-grained dimensions of Smiling and Laughter, Falling Reactivity, Cuddliness, Low-Intensity Pleasure, and Soothability; whereas US infants received higher ratings on the Negative Affectivity factor and on dimensions of Activity Level, Vocal Reactivity, Fear, Frustration, and Sadness. Cultural differences for Orienting/Regulatory Capacity were more pronounced in early infancy, cultural differences for Fear were stronger in late infancy, and US infants demonstrated higher Duration of Orienting at 12 months only. Culture also appeared to impact the pace of consolidation of temperamental characteristics, with greater stability exhibited by US than Dutch infants in Smiling and Laughter and Vocal Reactivity.

Studying cross-cultural differences in temperament in toddlerhood: United States of America (U.S.) and Italy

Cross-cultural differences between matched samples (N=306) of Italian and U.S. toddlers were evaluated. Italian toddlers received higher scores on cuddliness, impulsivity, low intensity pleasure, perceptual sensitivity and positive anticipation, whereas US toddlers were higher on frustration, high-intensity pleasure, inhibitory control, shyness, and soothability.

Promise of, problems with, and potential refinement of the "extremely short form of the CBQ": a comment on Sleddens, et al. (2012)

The extremely short (one item, three response options)temperament scale introduced by Sleddens, Hughes, O'Connor, Beltran, Baranowski, Nicklas, et al. (2012) is a valuable contribution that can be useful for future research and applications of temperament. Requiring parents to classify children as high on Effortful Control, Negative Affectivity, or Surgency/Extraversion, however, is counter to the dimensional approach through which these temperament factors were derived. This inappropriate imposition of a typology leads to a degree of imprecision in measurement that may have substantial practical implications. It is recommended that, instead, children be rated on each of these three dimensions. Alternatively, a single-item approach should include choices between groups identified through person-based analyses.

Stability and instability of childhood traits: implications for personality development of animals

Concepts of animal personality and human temperament are nearly identical, both emphasizing overt behaviors rather than conscious processes, and assuming a primary role of biology in shaping individual differences. A point of divergence is emphasis on development among temperament scholars. Whereas most definitions of personality and temperament emphasize differential continuity-the maintenance of individual differences in behavioral tendencies over time-several behaviors demonstrate absolute discontinuity-age-related changes in mean levels. Attention to species-wide changes in behaviors may generate insight regarding the forces that govern individual differences. Differential continuity may also be heterotypic, with an inferred genotypic attribute being manifest in different behaviors at different ages. Structural continuity-persistence of correlational patterns among variables at different ages-represents a tool for identifying coherence in the common underpinnings of these diverse behaviors. This article describes research exemplifying these forms of continuity in humans, and suggests potential implications for animal personality investigations.

Early Temperament in Japan, the United States, and Russia

The present study addressed differences in infant and toddler temperament, utilizing translations of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire–Revised (IBQ-R) and the Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire (ECBQ), for children growing up in the United States, Russia, and Japan. Results indicated a number of significant differences in higher-order dimensions and fine-grained components of early temperament between the three cultural groups. U.S. children scored higher for Surgency and related traits, compared to Japanese and Russian children; Negative Affectivity showed the opposite pattern of cross-cultural differences, wherein Japanese children received the highest scores from their caregivers. In addition, Japanese infants and toddlers scored lower for Effortful Control. Significant Culture × Age interactions indicated that patterns of cross-cultural differences in different age groups varied across and within the three higher-order dimensions. Surgency, as well as positive affect to both low and high levels of intensity, showed a consistent pattern of decreasing cultural differences with age.

Cross-cultural temperamental differences in infants, children, and adults in the United States of America and Finland

Cross-cultural differences in temperament were investigated between infants (n = 131, 84 Finns), children (n = 653, 427 Finns), and adults (n = 759, 538 Finns) from the United States of America and Finland. Participants from both cultures completed the Infant Behavior Questionnaire, Childhood Behavior Questionnaire and the Adult Temperament Questionnaire. Across all ages, Americans received higher ratings on temperamental fearfulness than Finnish individuals, and also demonstrated higher levels of other negative affects at several time points. During infancy and adulthood, Finns tended to score higher on positive affect and elements of temperamental effortful control. Gender differences consistent with prior studies emerged cross-culturally, and were found to be more pronounced in the US during childhood and in Finland during adulthood.

Studying cross-cultural differences in temperament in the first year of life: United States and Italy

An Italian translation of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised (IBQ-R) was developed and evaluated with 110 infants, demonstrating satisfactory internal consistency, discriminant validity, and construct validity in the form of gender and age differences, as well as factorial integrity. Cross-cultural differences were subsequently evaluated for matched samples of Italian and United States (US) (N = 110) 3—12-month-olds. Across infancy, parents of US infants reported higher levels of activity, high and low intensity pleasure, and vocal reactivity, whereas Italian infants, particularly males, were rated higher on cuddliness. In early infancy only, US infants were viewed as higher on high intensity pleasure and perceptual sensitivity.

Development of Short and Very Short Forms of the Children's Behavior Questionnaire

Using data from 468 parents and taking into account internal consistency, breadth of item content, within-scale factor analysis, and patterns of missing data, we developed short (94 items, 15 scales) and very short (36 items, 3 broad scales) forms of the Children's Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ; Rothbart, Ahadi, & Hershey, 1994; Rothbart, Ahadi, Hershey, & Fisher, 2001), a well-established parent-report measure of temperament for children aged 3 to 8 years. We subsequently evaluated the forms with data from 1,189 participants. In mid/high-income and White samples, the CBQ short and very short forms demonstrated both satisfactory internal consistency and criterion validity, and exhibited longitudinal stability and cross-informant agreement comparable to that of the standard CBQ. Internal consistency was somewhat lower among African American and low-income samples for some scales. Very short form scales demonstrated acceptable internal consistency for all samples, and confirmatory factor analyses indicated marginal fit of the very short form items to a three-factor model.

Measurement of fine-grained aspects of toddler temperament: the early childhood behavior questionnaire

This article describes the development, reliability, and factor structure of a finely differentiated (18 dimensions) parent-report measure of temperament in 1.5- to 3-year-old children, using a cross-sectional sample (N=317) and a longitudinal sample of primary (N=104) and secondary (N=61) caregivers. Adequate internal consistency was demonstrated for all scales and moderate inter-rater reliability was evident for most scales. Longitudinal stability correlations were primarily large over 6- and 12-month spans and moderate to large from 18 to 36 months. Factor analysis revealed a three-factor structure of Surgency/Extraversion, Negative Affectivity, and Effortful Control. In both samples and for both primary and secondary caregivers, older children received higher scores for Attention Focusing, Discomfort, Inhibitory Control, and Positive Anticipation. Primary caregivers rated females higher in Fear, and lower in High-intensity Pleasure, than males; secondary caregivers rated females higher than males in several aspects of Effortful Control.

Maternal Regulation of Infant Reactivity From 2 to 6 Months

Previous research has investigated the effect of maternal soothing behaviors on reducing infant reactivity but not the differential effects of specific maternal behaviors on infant stress responses. The present study investigated maternal regulation of 2- and 6-month-olds' responses to an inoculation and found a significant decline with age in both the intensity and duration of infants' crying. Maternal affection and touching decreased from 2 to 6 months, whereas maternal vocalizing and distraction behaviors increased. At both ages, the combination of maternal holding/rocking and vocalizing was associated with decreases in all levels of infant reactivity. Neither strategy alone, however, was found to be effective. Feeding/ pacifying behaviors were effective only when initial distress was at a low or moderate level, which suggests that the effectiveness of maternal regulatory behaviors may depend on the intensity of infants' crying.

Maternal reports of conscience development and temperament in young children

Multiple manifestations of emerging conscience, their development, organization, and links with temperament were studied in 171 21-70-month-old children. A new parental report instrument was designed to measure conscience, with good psychometric qualities and predictive of children's behaviors in a laboratory. For most aspects of conscience, the major developmental shifts occurred around age 3.2 components of early conscience emerged in factor analyses: Affective Discomfort, significantly higher for girls, that encompassed guilt, apology, concern about good feelings with the parent following wrongdoing, and empathy with others, and Active Moral Regulation/Vigilance, which included confession and reparation following wrongdoing, internalization of rules of conduct (self-regulation), and concern about others' wrongdoing. Children's temperament, assessed by maternal reports, was associated with conscience. Low impulsivity and high inhibitory control were associated with Active Moral Regulation/Vigilance for both sexes and, for girls only, also with Affective Discomfort. For girls, temperamental reactivity related positively to Affective Discomfort and negatively to Active Moral Regulation/Vigilance.

Electrochemical aspects of intravascular oxygen transducers

The factors which limit the useful lifetime of miniaturized electrochemical oxygen transducers for use in neonatal intensive care are described. These factors arise from the use of the conventional silver-silver chloride reference electrode. Four possible means of improving the useful lifetime are described, namely the use of ion-permeable membranes, guard electrodes, potential-time programmes and nickel(II) hydroxide reference electrodes.