The multiple subfunctions of attention: differential developmental gateways to literacy and numeracy

Far Transfer Effects of Trainings on Executive Functions in Neurodevelopmental Disorders: A Systematic Review and Metanalysis

Executive Functions are a set of interrelated, top-down processes essential for adaptive goal-directed behaviour, frequently impaired across different neurodevelopmental disorders with variable degrees of severity. Many executive-function-training studies in children with neurodevelopmental disorders have focused on near effects, investigating post-treatment improvements on directly trained processes, while enhancements of skills not directly trained, defined as far effects, are less considered, albeit these could be extremely relevant for reducing the negative impact of a disorder's core symptomatology. This systematic review and metanalysis aims to investigate the far effect outcomes after EF training in children with different types of neurodevelopmental disorders. 17 studies met the inclusion criteria for the systematic review, while 15 studies were selected in the metanalysis. An overall statistically significant effect size was found in the majority of far effect outcome measures considered in the studies. In particular, trainings on executive functions determine significant far effects on daily life functioning (0.46, 95% CI: [0.05-0.87]) and clinical symptoms (0.33, 95% CI: [0.15-0.51]). Despite a high variability of the results, intensity, frequency and the laboratory/life contexts dimension seem to be the most influential variables in determining far effects. This systematic review and metanalysis highlights the need to measure far effects of executive function training in neurodevelopmental disorders, selecting treatments not only on directly targeted processes, but also according to far impacts on the functional weakness of the disorder.

Attending to what's important: what heat maps may reveal about attention, inhibitory control, and fraction arithmetic performance

Math proficiency is an important predictor of educational attainment and life success. However, developing mathematical competency is challenging, and some content (e.g., fractions) can be enigmatic. Numerous factors are suspected to influence math performance, including strategy knowledge, attention, and executive functions. In two online studies, we investigated the relationship between adults' fraction arithmetic performance, confidence judgments, inhibitory control (a component of executive functions), and attention to strategy-relevant fraction components. We explored the utility of heat maps (based on mouse clicks) to measure adults' attention to strategy-relevant fraction arithmetic components (operationalized according to each mathematical operation). In Study 1, attending to strategy-relevant fraction components was correlated with inhibitory control, but this finding did not replicate in Study 2. Across both studies, inhibitory control and attention to strategy-relevant fraction components were correlated with arithmetic accuracy. Intraindividual variability in participants' attention to strategy-relevant fraction components was also found. Our findings suggest that heat map questions may be a viable alternative to assess participants' attention during fraction tasks and that attention to specific fraction-arithmetic problem features is related to problem-solving accuracy.

The Impact of Audio-Visual, Visual and Auditory Cues on Multiple Object Tracking Performance in Children with Autism

Previous studies have documented differences in processing multisensory information by children with autism compared to typically developing children. Furthermore, children with autism have been found to track fewer multiple objects on a screen than those without autism, suggesting reduced attentional control. In the present study, we investigated whether children with autism (n = 33) and children without autism (n = 33) were able to track four target objects moving amongst four indistinguishable distractor objects while sensory cues were presented. During tracking, we presented various types of cues - auditory, visual, or audio-visual or no cues while target objects bounced off the inner boundary of a centralized circle. We found that children with autism tracked fewer targets than children without autism. Furthermore, children without autism showed improved tracking performance in the presence of visual cues, whereas children with autism did not benefit from sensory cues. Whereas multiple object tracking performance improved with increasing age in children without autism, especially when using audio-visual cues, children with autism did not show age-related improvement in tracking. These results are in line with the hypothesis that attention and the ability to integrate sensory cues during tracking are reduced in children with autism. Our findings could contribute valuable insights for designing interventions that incorporate multisensory information.

Comparative strengths and challenges on face-to-face and computer-based attention tasks in autistic and neurotypical toddlers

The objectives were to compare patterns of visual attention in toddlers diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) as compared to their sex- and age-matched neurotypical (NT) peers. Participants included 23 toddlers with ASD and 19 NT toddlers (mean age: 25.52 versus 25.21 months, respectively) assessed using computerized tasks to measure sustained attention, disengaging attention, and cognitive control, as well as an in-person task to assess joint attention. Toddlers in the ASD group showed increased looking durations on the sustained attention task, as well as reduced frequencies of responding to and initiating joint attention compared to NT peers, but showed no differences on tasks of disengaging attention and cognitive control. The results suggest that toddlers with ASD have attentional strengths that may provide a foundation for building attention, communicative, and ultimately, academic skills.

How attention factors into executive function in preschool children

Executive Function consists of self-regulation processes which underlie our ability to plan, coordinate, and complete goal-directed actions in our daily lives. While attention is widely considered to be central to the emergence and development of executive function during early childhood, it is not clear if it is integral or separable from other executive function processes. Previous studies have not addressed this question satisfactorily because executive function and attention are multidimensional constructs, but they are often studied without differentiating the specific processes that are tested. Moreover, some studies consist of only one task per process, making it difficult to ascertain if the pattern of results is attributable to different processes or more simply to task variance. The main aim of this study was to more fully investigate how attention factored into the underlying structure of executive function in preschool children. Preschool children (n = 137) completed a battery of tasks which included executive function (i.e., response inhibition, working memory) and attentional control (i.e., sustained attention, selective attention) processes; there were two tasks per process. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) were conducted to test which of three models fit the data best: (1) a unitary one-factor model with attention loading onto the same factor as other executive function processes, (2) a two-factor model with attention loading onto a separate factor than other executive function processes, or (3) a three-factor model with attention, response inhibition, and working memory as separate factors. Fit indices and model comparisons indicated that the two-factor model fit the data best, suggesting that attentional control and executive function were related, but separable. Although this study is not the first to advocate for a two-factor model during the preschool years, it is the first to suggest that the two factors are attentional control and executive function, not working memory and response inhibition. One important implication of these findings is that a complete assessment of executive function during the preschool years necessitates measuring not only response inhibition and working memory, but attentional control as well.

Impact of sleep on attention in primary school-aged autistic children: Exploratory cross-cultural comparison between Singapore and UK children

BACKGROUND

There is a growing body of research studying the impact sleep has on attention among typically developing (TD) children, but research is lacking among autistic children.

AIMS

The present study aimed to explore, for the first time, differences in (1) attention, (2) sleep parameters among primary school-aged Singaporean autistic children (N = 26) and Singaporean TD children (N = 20), and with UK autistic (N = 11) and UK TD children (N = 16), and (3) the impact of sleep on attention.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Actigraphy was used to objectively assess sleep, and a Continuous Performance Task was used to measure attentional domains.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

There were inconclusive findings indicating that autistic children had poorer sustained attention than TD children. Although autistic children did not display more sleep difficulties than TD children, they showed shorter actual sleep duration (Singapore ASD = 7:00 h, UK ASD = 7:35 h, p < .01) and longer sleep latency (Singapore ASD = 30:15 min, UK ASD = 60:00 min, p < .01) than clinical recommendations. Sleep difficulties were also present among Singaporean and UK TD children. Both TD groups had less actual sleep duration than recommended (Singapore TD = 6:32 h, UK TD = 8:07 h). Singaporean TD children had sleep efficiency below recommended criterion (78.15%). Sleep impacted attention across all groups, but effects were different for autistic and TD groups.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

The study highlighted the importance for practitioners and carers to adopt a child-centred approach to assessing sleep and attentional difficulties, especially among autistic children due to the high variability in performance within the group. The impact of cultural and school-setting differences on sleep was also raised.

The Contributions of Cognitive Abilities to the Relationship between ADHD Symptoms and Academic Achievement

The main objective of this study was to examine whether increased levels of inattentive (INA) and hyperactive/impulsive (H/I) behaviours were associated with lower scores on standardized tests of achievement in basic reading, spelling, and math skills, after accounting for certain known background risk factors and cognitive processes. Clinical assessment data from a rigorously diagnosed, stimulant-medication-naïve sample of 354 elementary school-aged children experiencing academic difficulties and behavioural symptoms of inattention and/or hyperactivity/impulsivity were analyzed. Although higher scores of INA were significantly associated with lower scores in reading, spelling, and math, these associations did not persist when cognitive variables were added to the models. H/I was associated with math achievement, along with cognitive and background variables. Overall, cognitive variables accounted for the majority of the variance across basic reading, spelling, and math skills. Additionally, the only background demographic variables associated with academic achievement were age and sex for spelling and math. This finding highlights the importance of looking beyond observable INA and H/I behaviours to determine the underlying factors influencing academic achievement. Accurate identification of deficits in specific academic skills and the underlying factors influencing achievement in these skills are essential components in determining appropriate recommendations and targeted interventions.

Endogenous control is insufficient for preventing attentional capture in children and adults

Adults are known to have developed the ability to selectively focus their attention in a goal-driven (endogenous) manner but it is less clear at what stage in development (5-6 & 9-11 years) children can endogenously control their attention and whether they behave similarly to adults when managing distractions. In this study we administered a child-adapted cued visual search task to three age-groups: five- to six-year-olds (N = 45), nine- to eleven-year-olds (N = 42) and adults (N = 42). Participants were provided with a cue which either guided their attention towards or away from an upcoming target. On some trials, a singleton distracter was presented which participants needed to ignore. Participants completed three conditions where the cues were: 1) usually helpful (High Predictive), 2) usually unhelpful (Low Predictive) and 3) never helpful (Baseline) in guiding attention towards the target. We found that endogenous cue-utilisation develops with increasing age. Overall, nine- to eleven-year-olds and adults, but not five- to six-year-olds, utilised the endogenous cues in the High Predictive condition. However, all age-groups were unable to ignore the singleton distracter even when using endogenous control. Moreover, we found better cue-maintenance ability was related to poorer distracter-inhibition ability in early-childhood, but these skills were no longer related further on in development. We conclude that overall endogenous control is still developing in early-childhood, but an adult-like form of this skill has been acquired by mid-childhood. Furthermore, endogenous cue-utilisation was shown as insufficient for preventing attentional capture in both children and adults.

Digital cognitive training in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a study protocol of a randomised controlled trial

INTRODUCTION

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most prevalent neurodevelopmental disorders and is a persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with daily functioning. Children with ADHD are developmentally vulnerable, with the disorder linked to emotional regulation difficulties, behavioural disturbances, as well as academic challenges. Emerging evidence suggests that children with ADHD may benefit from cognitive training interventions, including those focused on attention. This study aims to assess the immediate and long-term efficacy of an attention training intervention in children with ADHD.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

This study is a preregistered, parallel, double blind, randomised controlled trial. Participants will comprise 104 children with a diagnosis of ADHD aged 5-8 years 11 months. Participants will be randomly allocated to either an adaptive, digital game-based (1) attention training programme (intervention) or (2) a numeracy programme (control). Both programmes will be delivered on a touchscreen tablet, and children will complete five 20 min sessions per week for a 5-week period at home (25 sessions in total). Assessments of the primary outcome (ie, attention and inhibitory control) and secondary outcomes (ie, selective attention, interference control, sustained attention, inhibition, behavioural attention, impairment in everyday functioning, working memory and executive functioning) will occur at preintervention, immediately postintervention and at 3-month follow-up. Multivariate linear regression will be employed to examine primary and secondary outcomes. The data analyst will be blinded to group membership.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

Ethics approval has been obtained from the Monash University HREC (20495). Results will be disseminated through peer-reviewed journals, conference presentations, media outlets, the internet and various community/stakeholder activities.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

ACTRN12620000964910, UTN U1111-1250-2620.

Patterns of Attention and Anxiety in Predicting Arithmetic Fluency among School-Aged Children

Although the interaction between anxiety and attention is considered crucial for learning and performance in mathematics, few studies have examined these cognitive and affective predictors in a single framework or explored the role of sustained attention in promoting children’s arithmetic performance, using traditional linear analyses and latent profile analysis (LPA). In this paper, state anxieties (in a math test and in an attention test situation), general anxiety traits, sustained attention (performance-based test and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) self-ratings) and math achievement of 403 fourth and fifth graders (55.8% girls) were assessed. A negative correlation between state anxiety prior to the math test and arithmetic achievements was identified, even when controlling for other non-math related state anxieties and general anxiety. Sustained attention was a strong predictor of arithmetic achievement and functioned as a moderator in the anxiety-performance link. LPA identified six distinct profiles that revealed a complex relationship with arithmetic fluency. The weakest achievement was found for a specific math anxiety subgroup. The findings highlight the important role of the interaction of anxiety and sustained attention in children’s ability to perform math and enable new conclusions about the specific nature of math anxiety. Implications for future research are discussed.

Higher Tablet Use Is Associated With Better Sustained Attention Performance but Poorer Sleep Quality in School-Aged Children

There are growing concerns that increased screen device usage may have a detrimental impact on classroom behaviour and attentional focus. The consequences of screen use on child cognitive functioning have been relatively under-studied, and results remain largely inconsistent. Screen usage may displace the time usually spent asleep. The aim of this study was to examine associations between screen use, behavioural inattention and sustained attention control, and the potential modifying role of sleep. The relations between screen use, behavioural inattention, sustained attention and sleep were investigated in 162 6- to 8-year-old children, using parent-reported daily screen use, the SWAN ADHD behaviour rating scale, The sustained attention to response task and the children’s sleep habits questionnaire. Tablet use was associated with better sustained attention performance but was not associated with classroom behavioural inattention. Shorter sleep duration was associated with poorer behavioural inattention and sustained attention. Sleep quality and duration did not act as mediators between screen usage and behavioural inattention nor sustained attention control. These findings suggest that careful management of the amount of time spent on electronic screen devices could have a beneficial cognitive impact on young children. The results also highlight the critical role of sleep in enhancing both behavioural attention and sustained attention, which are essential for supporting cognitive development and learning.

Examining the Relations between Preschooler's Externalizing Behaviors and Academic Performance Using an S-1 Bifactor Model

Externalizing behaviors are associated with poor academic outcomes in community-based samples of children as young as preschool-age. However, there remains debate as to which specific externalizing dimensions link externalizing behaviors to early academic skills. Recently, research has supported the use of S-1 bifactor models to examine the hierarchical structure of externalizing behaviors and the unique relations between externalizing factors and academic impairment in samples of school-age children. The primary goals of this study were to extend the age range at which S-1 bifactor models are applied to externalizing behaviors and to determine if factors derived from an S-1 bifactor model had differing relations to early academic skills. In this study, the early academic skills of 1,356 preschool-age children (mean age = 49.98 months; SD = 8.08) were assessed, and preschool and childcare teachers rated children's externalizing behaviors. Results indicated that an S-1 bifactor model with a Hyperactive-Impulsive reference factor yielded the best-fitting model for preschool-age children's externalizing behaviors. Structural models revealed that both the Hyperactive-Impulsive reference factor and the Inattention factor uniquely predicted preschool children's early academic skills. The degree to which the results applied across the primary groups in the sample (i.e., White versus Black/African American children, girls versus boys) was examined for measurement and structural models.

Breaking up classroom sitting time with cognitively engaging physical activity: Behavioural and brain responses

INTRODUCTION

Classroom-based active breaks are a feasible and effective way to reduce and break up sitting time, and to potentially benefit physical health in school children. However, the effect of active breaks on children's cognitive functions and brain activity remains unclear.

OBJECTIVE

We investigated the impact of an active break intervention on typically developing children's cognitive functions and brain activity, sitting/standing/stepping, on-task behaviour, and enjoyment.

METHODS

Up to 141 children, aged between 6 and 8 years (46% girls), were included, although about half of them completed two of the assessments (n = 77, working memory; n = 67, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex haemodynamic response). Classrooms from two consenting schools were randomly allocated to a six-week simple or cognitively engaging active break intervention. Classrooms from another school acted as a control group. The main analyses used linear mixed models, clustered at the class level and adjusted for sex and age, to investigate the effects of the interventions on response inhibition, lapses of attention, working memory, event-related brain haemodynamic response (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex). The mediating effects of sitting/standing/stepping on cognition/brain activity were also explored. To test intervention fidelity, we investigated differences by group on the change values in children's sitting, standing, and moving patterns during class/school time using linear mixed models. Generalized linear mixed models clustered at the individual level were used to examine on-task behaviour data. For the intervention groups only, we also assessed children's perceived enjoyment, physical exertion and mental exertion related to the active breaks and compared the results using independent t-tests.

RESULTS

There was a significantly greater positive change in the proportion of deoxygenated haemoglobin in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of children assigned to cognitively engaging active breaks compared to the control group (B = 1.53 × 10-07, 95% CI [0.17 × 10-07, 2.90 × 10-07]), which under the same cognitive performance is suggestive of improved neural efficiency. Mixed models showed no significant effects on response inhibition, lapses of attention, working memory. The mediation analysis revealed that the active breaks positively affected response inhibition via a change in sitting and standing time. The sitting, standing, and moving patterns and on-task behaviour were positively affected by the active breaks at end of trial, but not at mid-trial. Children in both intervention groups showed similarly high levels of enjoyment of active breaks.

CONCLUSION

Cognitively engaging active breaks may improve brain efficiency in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, the neural substrate of executive functions, as well as response inhibition, via effects partially mediated by the change in sitting/stepping time. Active breaks can effectively reduce sitting and increase standing/stepping and improve on-task behaviour, but the regular implementation of these activities might require time for teachers to become familiar with. Further research is needed to confirm what type of active break best facilitates cognition.

Domain-general and domain-specific influences on emerging numerical cognition: Contrasting uni-and bidirectional prediction models

Domain-general skills such as executive functions (EFs), and domain-specific skills such as non-symbolic number sense and symbolic understanding are often pitted against each other as predictors of emerging maths. Here we aimed to investigate early childhood relations between these foundational skills with a balanced, longitudinal design. One hundred and seventy 3- and 4-year-old-children were tested at two time points, 5 months apart, on four domain-general executive and five domain-specific numeracy tasks. A latent EF factor was a strong predictor of symbolic maths and of their growth. In addition, stronger symbolic maths at Time 1 was correlated with later stronger EF, but symbolic maths did not predict EF growth. Our findings provide novel insights into dynamic interplay between general and specific cognitive skills contributing to preschool maths.

Gamified Attention Training in the Primary School Classroom: A Cluster-Randomized Controlled Trial

Objective: This randomized controlled trial evaluated the efficacy of attention training delivered in class on cognitive attention processes, inattention, hyperactivity, working memory, and numeracy in primary school children. Method: Eight classes (n = 98 children; 5-9 years) were cluster randomized to gamified attention training, a placebo program, or a no-contact control condition. Assessments were conducted at baseline, immediately after the 5-week intervention (posttraining), and 6 months later (follow-up). Results: Posttraining, attention training was associated with reduced inattention and hyperactivity within the classroom compared with controls, and reduced hyperactivity at home compared with the no-contact control. At follow-up, reduced hyperactivity within the classroom compared with the no-contact control persisted. No effects of training on cognitive attention processes, working memory, and numeracy were observed posttraining. Conclusion: Classroom-based attention training has select benefits in reducing inattention and hyperactivity, but may not promote gains in cognitive or academic skills in primary school children.

Visual disengagement in young infants in relation to age, sex, SES, developmental level and adaptive functioning

Visual attention plays a key role in infants' interaction with the environment, and shapes their behavioral and brain development. As such, early problems with flexibly switching gaze from one stimulus to another (visual disengagement) have been hypothesized to lead to developmental difficulties (e.g. joint attention and social skills) over time. This study aimed to identify cross-sectional associations between performance in the Gap task (gaze shift latencies and visual attention disengagement) and measures of development and adaptive behavior in conjunction to any sex or socioeconomic status effects in infancy. We measured visual attention disengagement in 436 5-month-old infants and calculated its association with cognitive developmental level, adaptive behaviours, socioeconomic status (SES) and biological sex. In the Gap task, participants must redirect their gaze from a central stimulus to an appearing peripheral stimulus. The three experimental conditions of the task (Gap, Baseline and Overlap) differ on the timepoint when the central stimuli disappears in relation to the appearance of the peripheral stimulus: 200 ms before the peripheral stimulus appears (Gap), simultaneously to its appearance (Baseline), or with peripheral stimulus offset (Overlap). The data from the experimental conditions showed the expected pattern, with average latencies being the shortest in the Gap and longest in the Overlap condition. Females were faster (p = .004) than males in the Gap condition, which could indicate that arousal-related effects differ as a function of biological sex. Infants from higher SES were slower (p = .031) in the Overlap condition compared to lower SES infants. This suggests that basic visual attention may differ by socio-cultural background, and should be considered when studying visual attention and its developmental correlates. We observed no significant association to concurrent developmental level or adaptive function. Given its large sample size, this study provides a useful reference for future studies of visual disengagement in early infancy.

Sustained attention to response task performance trajectories in Down syndrome

BACKGROUND

Sustained attention (SA) has been reported to be a unitary construct in youth with Down syndrome (DS), but additional analyses of how auditory and visual SA change over task presentation time are warranted.

METHOD

The current study was a secondary data analysis employing multilevel modeling. Specifically, we compared auditory and visual sustained attention to response task (SART) performance trajectories within a group of 42 youth with DS aged 10 to 22 years.

RESULTS

We found that auditory omission errors increased at a faster rate than visual omission errors over increasing SART block presentations in youth with DS.

CONCLUSIONS

Youth with DS experience more SA lapses over time in the auditory than visual modality. Results have implications for academic instruction and assessment.

Implications of Sensory Processing and Attentional Differences Associated With Autism in Academic Settings: An Integrative Review

The impact of classroom environments on student engagement and academic performance is well-documented. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is associated with atypical sensory processing and attentional impairments, which may lead to challenges in successfully accessing educational material within these settings. These symptoms may help explain why students with ASD show discrepancies between intellectual ability and academic performance. Given the increasing number of students with ASD present in classrooms, understanding strengths and weaknesses in sensory processing and attention is necessary in order to design better classroom environments and develop more efficacious accommodations and interventions to support optimal student success. Therefore, the objectives of this review are to provide a brief review of the current literature on sensory processing and attention in ASD, survey how sensory and attentional functions affect academic outcomes in both neurotypical and ASD learners, and suggest potential accommodations/interventions for students with ASD based on these findings.

Profiles of academic achievement and attention in children with and without Autism Spectrum Disorder

BACKGROUND

Academic outcomes for autistic individuals are heterogeneous, but the reasons for this are unknown. Attention is known to predict learning in typical development, but there is less evidence about this relationship in Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD), even though attention is reported as atypical in this group.

AIMS

To investigate reading and maths achievement profiles for children with and without an ASD, focusing on the role of attention in these profiles and to enable a better understanding of individual differences.

METHODS

Reading, maths and attention abilities of 22 autistic children (6-16 years) and 59 TD children (6-11 years) were measured using standardised assessments.

RESULTS

A hierarchical cluster analysis that included all children (N = 81) revealed three distinct transdiagnostic subgroups, characterised by children with good, average, and poorer divided attention and academic achievement respectively. Children with poorer attention and achievement displayed relative weaknesses in maths, while children with average or above-average attention and achievement showed no such weakness.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings provide a novel insight into the relationship between attention and achievement and understanding individual differences in ASD and typical development.

Using a multidimensional model of attention to predict low-income preschoolers' early academic skills across time

The current study examines the organization of attention skills across the preschool year before kindergarten, and tests how distinct attention subcomponents predict early academic skills in a sample of low-income children (n = 99). Children completed well-validated attention tasks in fall at 4.5 years old and spring at 5 years old, capturing the abilities to selectively focus, sustain attention, and employ executive control. Exploratory factor analyses at both time points support a 2-factor model differentiating selective and sustained attention from attention processing speed and executive attention, suggesting that attention in low-income preschoolers may have a simpler organization than the 3-factor structure found in adulthood. Multiple regression models find children's ability to selectively focus and sustain attention serves as a robust concurrent and longitudinal predictor of academic skills. These results highlight the role of selective and sustained attention processes in supporting school readiness for economically vulnerable children.

The association between visual attention and arithmetic competence: The mediating role of enumeration

The current study aimed at clarifying the nature of relation between visual attention and arithmetic competence. A group of 301 Chinese second graders was assessed. Children's visual attention was measured using two versions of a visual search task, with efficient visual search (the similarity between the target and the distractors is low) tapping automatic, stimulus-driven visual attention and inefficient visual search (the similarity between the target and the distractors is high) tapping effortful, goal-directed visual attention. Children's arithmetic competence, enumeration skills (assessed in about half of the participants), and other domain-general cognitive abilities were also assessed. The results suggest that only inefficient visual search significantly predicted children's arithmetic competence, and such a relation was mediated through their enumeration skills. The findings highlight the role of fundamental cognitive capacities in mathematics learning and provide insights into potential interventions for improving children's arithmetic competence.

Social origins of self-regulated attention during infancy and their disruption in autism spectrum disorder: Implications for early intervention

To understand the complex relationships between autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and other frequently comorbid conditions, a growing number of studies have investigated the emergence of ASD during infancy. This research has suggested that symptoms of ASD and highly related comorbid conditions emerge from complex interactions between neurodevelopmental vulnerabilities and early environments, indicating that developing treatments to prevent ASD is highly challenging. However, it also suggests that attenuating the negative effects of ASD on future development once identified is possible. The present paper builds on this by conceptualizing developmental delays in nonsocial skills as the potential product of altered caregiver-infant interactions following the emergence of ASD during infancy. And, following emerging findings from caregiver-infant dyadic head-mounted eye-tracking (D-ET) research, it also suggests that a multiple pathway model of joint attention can provide mechanistic insights into how ASD alters the ability of caregiver and infant to create a context for infant learning. The potential for this view to inform early intervention is further discussed and illustrated through D-ET data collected prior to and following a brief, parent-mediated intervention for infant ASD. While promising, further research informing how a multiple pathway model of joint attention can inform ASD early intervention is needed.

Family Socioeconomic Status and Adolescents' Academic Achievement: The Moderating Roles of Subjective Social Mobility and Attention

Adolescents with low family socioeconomic status (SES) often have lower academic achievement than their peers with high family SES. However, less is known about the personal buffering mechanisms on the relationship between low family SES and academic achievement for youth. To address adolescents' academic achievement gap related to family SES, this study aimed to test whether family SES predicted adolescents' academic achievement and whether adolescents' subjective social mobility and attention moderated this relationship with longitudinal data. Valid participants included 827 adolescents (M_age = 12.30 years, range: 11-14 years, SD = 0.87, and 40.99% girls) from five township public schools in China. The results showed that family SES (comprising parents' education, parents' occupation, and family income) was positively correlated with adolescents' academic achievement (i.e., Chinese and math) when controlling for prior academic achievement. The positive associations between family SES and both Chinese and math achievement 9 months later were nonsignificant for adolescents with higher levels of subjective social mobility. In addition, the positive effect of family SES on Chinese achievement 9 months later was nonsignificant among adolescents with higher levels of attention. In conclusion, low family SES impairs adolescents' Chinese and math achievement, high levels of adolescents' subjective social mobility can buffer the adverse effects of low family SES on both Chinese and math achievement, and high levels of adolescents' attention can buffer the adverse effects of family SES on Chinese achievement but not on math achievement. These findings may emphasize the significance of developing differential interventions aimed at specific subject achievement for adolescents with low family SES.

Math Anxiety Mediates the Link Between Number Sense and Math Achievements in High Math Anxiety Young Adults

In the past few years, many studies have suggested that subjects with high sensory precision in the processing of non-symbolic numerical quantities (approximate number system; ANS) also have higher math abilities. At the same time, there has been interest in another non-cognitive factor affecting mathematical learning: mathematical anxiety (MA). MA is defined as a debilitating emotional reaction to mathematics that interferes with the manipulation of numbers and the solving of mathematical problems. Few studies have been dedicated to uncovering the interplay between ANS and MA and those have provided conflicting evidence. Here we measured ANS precision (numerosity discrimination thresholds) in a cohort of university students with either a high (>75th percentile; n = 49) or low (<25th percentile; n = 39) score on the Abbreviate Math Anxiety Scale (AMAS). We also assessed math proficiency using a standardized test (MPP: Mathematics Prerequisites for Psychometrics), visuo-spatial attention capacity by means of a Multiple Objects Tracking task (MOT) and sensory precision for non-numerical quantities (disk size). Our results confirmed previous studies showing that math abilities and ANS precision correlate in subjects with high math anxiety. Neither precision in size-discrimination nor visuo-spatial attentional capacity were found to correlate with math capacities. Interestingly, within the group with high MA, our data also revealed a relationship between ANS precision and MA, with MA playing a key role in mediating the correlation between ANS and math achievement. Taken together, our results suggest an interplay between extreme levels of MA and the sensory precision in the processing of non-symbolic numerosity.

Behavioral and Neural Changes Induced by a Blended Essential Oil on Human Selective Attention

Selective attention refers to the selecting and preferential processing of specific information while simultaneously suppressing irrelevant distractors, activities linked to various cognitive skills and academic achievements. The influence of essential oils on the cognition of humans has been extensively explored. However, the effects of essential oils on human selective attention and the underlying neural mechanisms remain unclear. In the present study, participants were divided into a “blended essential oil” group and a “no essential oil” group and enrolled on a negative priming task, including a control condition and a negative priming condition. The event-related potential technique was used to examine the brain mechanisms underlying the blended essential oil effects on human selective attention. Behavioral results showed that individuals responded more quickly in the negative priming condition when exposed to the blended essential oil. In addition, the blended essential oil eliminated the differences in the P300 amplitude in the postcentral area of the brain between the negative priming condition and the control condition. Moreover, the blended essential oil led to stronger functional connectivity during the task. The present study thus suggests that blended essential oil can significantly change brain activity and functional connections in human beings, which may improve human selective attention.

Dynamic sustained attention markers differentiate atypical development: The case of Williams syndrome and Down's syndrome

Impaired sustained attention is considered an important factor in determining poor functional outcomes across multiple cognitive and behavioural disorders. Sustained attention is compromised for both children with Williams syndrome (WS) and Down's syndrome (DS), but specific difficulties remain poorly understood because of limitations in how sustained attention has been assessed thus far.

In the current study, we compared the performance of typically developing children (N = 99), children with WS (N = 25), and children with DS (N = 18), on a Continuous Performance Task – a standard tool for measuring sustained attention. In contrast to previous studies, primarily focused on overall differences in mean performance, we estimated the extent to which performance changed over time on task, thus focusing directly on the sustained element of performance. Children with WS and children with DS performed more poorly overall compared to typically developing children. Importantly, measures specific to changes over time differentiated between children with the two syndromes. Children with WS showed a decrement in performance, whereas children with Down's syndrome demonstrated non-specific poor performance. In addition, our measure of change in performance predicted teacher-rated attention deficits symptoms across the full sample.

An approach that captures dynamic changes in performance over assessments may be fruitful for investigating similarities and differences in sustained attention for other atypically developing populations.

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Impaired sustained attention is a key factor in determining poor functional outcomes.

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Children with WS or DS performed more poorly overall than neurotypical children.

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In addition, children with WS showed a decrement in performance over time.

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In contrast, children with DS demonstrated non-specific poor performance.

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Our dynamic sustained attention measure predicted teacher-rated attention symptoms.

Assessment of Mathematics Difficulties for Second and Third Graders: Cognitive and Psychological Parameters

Mathematical achievement during the first years of primary school seems to be a reliable predictor of students’ later performance. In addition, cognitive, metacognitive, and psychological parameters are considered to be factors related to mathematical achievement. However, in the Greek educational system, there is a shortage of valid and reliable tools for the assessment of mathematics difficulties and as a consequence, identification of children with these difficulties does not take place before the last years of primary school. This study aims to investigate the relationship between working memory, sustained attention, executive functions, and math anxiety with mathematical achievement in 2nd and 3rd graders. The design of the study was based on the parameters of mathematics difficulties, as they arise from the literature review. Ninety-one Year 2 and Year 3 primary school students (mean age 8.06 years) from three public schools situated in Attica, Greece participated in the study. The students completed three different scales including educational, cognitive, and psychological tasks. Results showed that mathematical skills were significantly correlated with sustained attention, inductive reasoning, math anxiety, and working memory. Moreover, mental arithmetic ability, sustained attention, and working memory predicted mathematical achievement of second and third graders. The study’s outcomes verify that sustained attention, inductive reasoning, working memory, and math anxiety are correlated with young students’ mathematical performance. The implications of the results for the development of an assessment tool for early detection of mathematics difficulties will be discussed.

Test of Everyday Attention for Children (TEA-Ch): Greek Normative Data and Discriminative Validity for Children with Combined Type of Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder

We examined the utility of the Test of Everyday Attention for Children (TEA-Ch) for Greek children. Discrete and regression-based norms, controlling for demographic characteristics and intelligence, were derived from the performance of 172 children. We also assessed the ability of the TEA-Ch to differentiate children with ADHD-Combined Type (ADHD-C) from healthy matched peers. Children with ADHD-C displayed dysfunction in multiple attentional domains. Discriminant function analysis indicated that two subtests (Sky Search and Walk, Don't Walk) correctly classified 84.2% of children with ADHD-C.

Which Factors Influence Attentional Functions? Attention Assessed by KiTAP in 105 6-to-10-Year-Old Children

This research revealed the children with difficulties in attentional functions among healthy children attending primary school and aimed to identify the possible sociodemographic factors, such as the child’s age, gender, and school grade, that could influence attentive performance. The participants were 105 children aged 6–10 years (M age = 8.6; SD = 1.04), attending primary schools. Family economic condition was mostly at a medium level (63.5%), and parents most frequently had 13 years of schooling. The computerized test KiTAP was administered to children to assess their attentional functions. Results showed a higher frequency of omissions and false alarms and a reduced speed in alertness, go/no-go, and sustained attention tasks compared to Italian norms. Hierarchical regression analyses were run with school grade, gender, and current age as independent variables and mean reaction times (and standard deviation), number of omissions, and false alarms as dependent ones. The results showed that male gender and attending a lower grade impacted on lower attentional performance in several subtests. Girls showed the best performances in tests of distractibility and impulsive reaction tendencies, while higher school grade positively influenced divided and sustained attention. These results could be useful to identify children with major attentional difficulties, and some recommendations for future studies and the implementation of attention empowerment programmes are proposed.

The Multisensory Attention Assessment Protocol (MAAP): Characterizing individual differences in multisensory attention skills in infants and children and relations with language and cognition

Multisensory attention skills provide a crucial foundation for early cognitive, social, and language development, yet there are no fine-grained, individual difference measures of these skills appropriate for preverbal children. The Multisensory Attention Assessment Protocol (MAAP) fills this need. In a single video-based protocol requiring no language skills, the MAAP assesses individual differences in three fundamental building blocks of attention to multisensory events-the duration of attention maintenance, the accuracy of intersensory (audiovisual) matching, and the speed of shifting-for both social and nonsocial events, in the context of high and low competing visual stimulation. In Experiment 1, 2- to 5-year-old children (N = 36) received the MAAP and assessments of language and cognitive functioning. In Experiment 2 the procedure was streamlined and presented to 12-month-olds (N = 48). Both infants and children showed high levels of attention maintenance to social and nonsocial events, impaired attention maintenance and speed of shifting when competing stimulation was high, and significant intersensory matching. Children showed longer maintenance, faster shifting, and less impairment from competing stimulation than infants. In 2- to 5-year-old children, duration and accuracy were intercorrelated, showed increases with age, and predicted cognitive and language functioning. The MAAP opens the door to assessing developmental pathways between early attention patterns to audiovisual events and language, cognitive, and social development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Visual search and autism symptoms: What young children search for and co-occurring ADHD matter

Superior visual search is one of the most common findings in the autism spectrum disorder (ASD) literature. Here, we ascertain how generalizable these findings are across task and participant characteristics, in light of recent replication failures. We tested 106 3-year-old children at familial risk for ASD, a sample that presents high ASD and ADHD symptoms, and 25 control participants, in three multi-target search conditions: easy exemplar search (look for cats amongst artefacts), difficult exemplar search (look for dogs amongst chairs/tables perceptually similar to dogs), and categorical search (look for animals amongst artefacts). Performance was related to dimensional measures of ASD and ADHD, in agreement with current research domain criteria (RDoC). We found that ASD symptom severity did not associate with enhanced performance in search, but did associate with poorer categorical search in particular, consistent with literature describing impairments in categorical knowledge in ASD. Furthermore, ASD and ADHD symptoms were both associated with more disorganized search paths across all conditions. Thus, ASD traits do not always convey an advantage in visual search; on the contrary, ASD traits may be associated with difficulties in search depending upon the nature of the stimuli (e.g., exemplar vs. categorical search) and the presence of co-occurring symptoms.

Learning What to Attend to: From the Lab to the Classroom

Research in adult cognitive neuroscience addresses the bidirectional relationship between attentional selection and prior knowledge gained from learning and experience. This research area is ready for integration with developmental cognitive neuroscience, in particular with educational neuroscience. We review one aspect of this research area, learning what to attend to, to propose a path of integration from highly controlled experiments based on developmental and adult cognitive theories to inform cognitive interventions for learners across the lifespan. In particular, we review the research program that we have developed over the last few years, describe the constraints that we have faced in integrating adult and developmental paradigms, and delineate suggested next steps to inform educational neuroscience in more applied ways. Our proposed path of integration transitions from basic to applied research, while also suggesting that input from education could inform new basic research avenues that may more likely yield outcomes meaningful for education.

Explaining early moral hypocrisy: Numerical cognition promotes equal sharing behavior in preschool-aged children

Recent work has documented that despite preschool-aged children's understanding of social norms surrounding sharing, they fail to share their resources equally in many contexts. Here we explored two hypotheses for this failure: an insufficient motivation hypothesis and an insufficient cognitive resources hypothesis. With respect to the latter, we specifically explored whether children's numerical cognition-their understanding of the cardinal principle-might underpin their abilities to share equally. In Experiment 1, preschoolers' numerical cognition fully mediated age-related changes in children's fair sharing. We found little support for the insufficient motivation hypothesis-children stated that they had shared fairly, and failures in sharing fairly were a reflection of their number knowledge. Numerical cognition did not relate to children's knowledge of the norms of equality (Experiment 2). Results suggest that the knowledge-behavior gap in fairness may be partly explained by the differences in cognitive skills required for conceptual and behavioral equality.

Longitudinal Predictors of the Overlap between Reading and Math Skills

The predictors of developing reading skill are well known, and there is increasing coherence around predictors of developing math as well. These achievement skills share strong relations. Less knowledge is available regarding the extent to which predictors overlap and predict one another, particularly longitudinally, and across different types of reading and math. We followed kindergarten students (n = 193) for one year, evaluating a range of relevant predictor skills in kindergarten, and a range of relevant achievement outcomes (core, fluency, complex) of reading and math in grade 1. Few predictors differentially predicted math versus reading with some exception (phonological awareness and rapid naming for reading; counting knowledge for math). The pattern was more similar for core and fluency outcomes relative to complex ones. A small set of predictors accounted for much of the overlap among math and reading outcomes, regardless of type (core, fluency, or complex). Results have the potential to inform the development of early screening tools to consider both achievement domains simultaneously, and support the importance of following students identified as at-risk in one domain for their performance in both domains.

A classroom intervention to improve executive functions in late primary school children: Too 'old' for improvements?

BACKGROUND

Given the strong relationship between executive functions and academic achievement, there has been great interest in improving executive functions. School-based group interventions targeting executive functions revealed encouraging results in preschoolers and young school children; however, there is a paucity of studies in older primary school children (age 10-12). This is surprising considering that deficits in executive function performance can often be observed in this age group.

AIMS

Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine whether an innovative customized school-based group intervention could improve core executive functions (updating, inhibition, and shifting) in the age group concerned.

SAMPLE

In total, 118 ten- to twelve-year-old school children were recruited from eight participating classes.

METHODS

They were randomly assigned to one of two-six-week conditions of either a cognitive games group comprising of card and board games training executive functions (experimental group) or a wait-list control group (regular school lessons). In the cognitive games group, the class teachers held a 30-min training session twice a week. ANCOVAs (using pre-test values as covariate) were used to compare executive function performance between groups.

RESULTS

Results revealed that the cognitive games group improved specific executive functions (updating and shifting) compared to the control group. These findings indicate that a school-based group intervention can improve executive functions, even in 'older' primary school children.

CONCLUSION

This study provides empirical evidence for the effectiveness of a classroom-based cognitive training in older primary school children and is of practical relevance for educators.

Attention-training with children from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds in Cape Town

OBJECTIVE

Attention is a core process underlying competence in higher-order cognitive abilities. Previous research suggests that healthy children from low socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds perform poorly, relative to those from higher SES backgrounds, on tasks assessing attentional abilities. In this pilot study, we investigated the effects of an attention-training intervention on task performance in low-SES children.

METHOD

We conducted a quasi-controlled trial with stratified randomisation, using a pre-test/ post-test design. Participants were low-SES children aged 7-13 years. Each was assigned to either an intervention group, a play control group, or a test-only control group (n = 5 per group). We implemented a ten-week manualised cognitive rehabilitation program, Pay Attention!, administering standardised tests of attention, working memory, and inhibition before and after the intervention. Between- and within-group analyses and Reliable Change Index statistics evaluated differences in scores from pre- to post-intervention.

RESULTS

Analyses detected no notable between-group differences at either pre- or post-intervention testing. However, on tests of selective attention, attentional control, and inhibition, there were significant within-group and positive individual reliable changes exclusive to the intervention-group participants.

CONCLUSIONS

Given the variability in our findings, more research needs be conducted with a larger sample to determine, with greater rigour, the efficacy of the intervention within samples of healthy children from low-SES backgrounds.

Are working memory and behavioral attention equally important for both reading and listening comprehension? A developmental comparison

We investigated the extent to which working memory and behavioral attention predicted reading and listening comprehension in grades 1 through 3 and, whether their relative contributions differed by modality and grade. Separate grade samples (N = 370; ns = 125, 123, and 122 for grades 1, 2, and 3 respectively) completed multiple measures of word reading, working memory, and parallel measures of reading and listening comprehension. Teachers and parents provided behavioral attention ratings. Concurrently, working memory was more important for listening than for reading comprehension and predicted significant variance in both modalities across grades, after controlling for background measures and behavioral attention ratings. For both modalities, working memory explained the greatest proportion of variance in grade 3. Behavioral attention predicted variance in grades 1 and 2 for reading comprehension and all grades for listening comprehension. Subsidiary analyses demonstrated that the influence of working memory and behavioral attention on reading comprehension was indirect, through word reading and listening comprehension both concurrently and also longitudinally between grades 1-3. These findings indicate that delivery of classroom materials orally will not always be beneficial to the young beginner reader or one who struggles with word decoding, and that children with poor working memory/attention may require additional support to access meaning from both written and spoken text.

Preschoolers' selective sustained attention and numeracy skills and knowledge

This brief report addresses preschoolers' selective sustained attention (SSA) and early numeracy skills and knowledge. Past research indicates that children's attention and early numeracy are positively associated, yet some concerns have emerged about the age appropriateness of tools used to measure preschoolers' SSA. This study used a new measure-the Track-It Task-that demonstrates strong psychometric properties. In total, 31 at-risk preschoolers (M_age = 46.6 months) participated and were assessed on SSA, nonsymbolic quantity discrimination, and symbolic quantitative skills and knowledge. The ability to sustain attention in the face of distractions was positively correlated with preschoolers' verbal counting and one-to-one correspondence, Arabic numeral recognition, and cardinal principle knowledge. SSA was not significantly associated with child age or performance on a memory task. This study provides preliminary evidence that SSA may facilitate the process whereby young children become reliable counters and learn that the symbol system of numbers represents specific quantities.

Evaluation of the Triple Code Model of numerical processing-Reviewing past neuroimaging and clinical findings

This review reconciles past findings on numerical processing with key assumptions of the most predominant model of arithmetic in the literature, the Triple Code Model (TCM). This is implemented by reporting diverse findings in the literature ranging from behavioral studies on basic arithmetic operations over neuroimaging studies on numerical processing to developmental studies concerned with arithmetic acquisition, with a special focus on developmental dyscalculia (DD). We evaluate whether these studies corroborate the model and discuss possible reasons for contradictory findings. A separate section is dedicated to the transfer of TCM to arithmetic development and to alternative accounts focusing on developmental questions of numerical processing. We conclude with recommendations for future directions of arithmetic research, raising questions that require answers in models of healthy as well as abnormal mathematical development.

WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS

This review assesses the leading model in the field of arithmetic processing (Triple Code Model) by presenting knowledge from interdisciplinary research. It assesses the observed contradictory findings and integrates the resulting opposing viewpoints. The focus is on the development of arithmetic expertise as well as abnormal mathematical development. The original aspect of this article is that it points to a gap in research on these topics and provides possible solutions for future models.

Neuroplasticity of selective attention: Research foundations and preliminary evidence for a gene by intervention interaction

This article reviews the trajectory of our research program on selective attention, which has moved from basic research on the neural processes underlying selective attention to translational studies using selective attention as a neurobiological target for evidence-based interventions. We use this background to present a promising preliminary investigation of how genetic and experiential factors interact during development (i.e., gene × intervention interactions). Our findings provide evidence on how exposure to a family-based training can modify the associations between genotype (5-HTTLPR) and the neural mechanisms of selective attention in preschool children from lower socioeconomic status backgrounds.

Impact of Attention Training on Academic Achievement, Executive Functioning, and Behavior: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Children with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) experience significant difficulties in attention, learning, executive functions, and behavioral regulation. Emerging evidence suggests that computerized cognitive training may remediate these impairments. In a double blind controlled trial, 76 children with IDD (4-11 years) were randomized to either an attention training (n = 38) or control program (n = 38). Both programs were completed at home over a 5-week period. Outcome measures assessed literacy, numeracy, executive functioning, and behavioral/emotional problems, and were conducted at baseline, post-training, and 3-month follow-up. No training effects were observed at post-training; however, children in the training group showed greater improvements in numeracy skills at the 3-month follow-up. These results suggest that attention training may be beneficial for children with IDD; however, the modest nature of the intervention effects indicate that caution should be taken when interpreting clinical significance.

Developmental Differences in the Influence of Distractors on Maintenance in Spatial Working Memory

This study examined whether attention to a location plays a role in the maintenance of locations in spatial working memory in young children as it does in adults. This study was the first to investigate whether distractors presented during the delay of a spatial working memory task influenced young children's memory responses. Across two experiments, 3- and 6-year-olds completed a spatial working memory task featuring a static target location and distractor location. Results indicated a change between 3 and 6 years of age in how distractors influenced memory. Six-year-olds' memory responses were biased away from a distractor that was close to the target location and on the outside of the target location relative to the center of the monitor. Distractors that were far from the target or that were toward the center of the monitor relative to the target location had no effect. Three-year-olds' responses were biased toward a distractor when the distractor was on the outside of the target location and farther from the target. Distractors that were near the target location or toward the center of the monitor had no effect. These biases provide evidence that young children's maintenance of a location in memory is influenced by attention.

First evidence of the feasibility of gaze-contingent attention training for school children with autism

A number of authors have suggested that attention control may be a suitable target for cognitive training in children with autism spectrum disorder. This study provided the first evidence of the feasibility of such training using a battery of tasks intended to target visual attentional control in children with autism spectrum disorder within school-based settings. Twenty-seven children were recruited and randomly assigned to either training or an active control group. Of these, 19 completed the initial assessment, and 17 (9 trained and 8 control) completed all subsequent training sessions. Training of 120 min was administered per participant, spread over six sessions (on average). Compliance with the training tasks was generally high, and evidence of within-task training improvements was found. A number of untrained tasks to assess transfer of training effects were administered pre- and post-training. Changes in the trained group were assessed relative to an active control group. Following training, significant and selective changes in visual sustained attention were observed. Trend training effects were also noted on disengaging visual attention, but no convincing evidence of transfer was found to non-trained assessments of saccadic reaction time and anticipatory looking. Directions for future development and refinement of these new training techniques are discussed.

Classroom-Based Physical Activity Breaks and Children's Attention: Cognitive Engagement Works!

Classroom-based physical activity breaks are postulated to positively impact children's attention during their school day. However, empirical evidence for this claim is scarce and the role of cognitive engagement in enhancing children's attentional performance is unexplored in studies on physical activity breaks. The aim of the present study was therefore to disentangle the separate and/or combined effects of physical exertion and cognitive engagement induced by physical activity breaks on primary school children's attention. In addition, the role of children's affective reactions to acute interventions at school was investigated. Using a 2 × 2 between-subjects experimental design, 92 children between the ages of 11 and 12 years (M = 11.77, SD = 0.41) were randomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions: (1) combo group (physical activity with high cognitive demands), (2) cognition group (sedentary with high cognitive demands), (3) physical group (physical activity with low cognitive demands), and (4) control group (sedentary with low cognitive demands). Attention and affect were measured before and immediately after a 10-min intervention. ANCOVAs revealed that whereas physical exertion had no effect on any measure of children's attentional performance, cognitive engagement was the crucial factor leading to increased focused attention and enhanced processing speed. Mediational analyses showed that changes in positive affect during the interventions mediated the effect between cognitive engagement and focused attention as well as between cognitive engagement and processing speed. These surprising results are discussed in the light of theories predicting both facilitating and deteriorative effects of positive affect on attention.

Visual attention and academic performance in children with developmental disabilities and behavioural attention deficits

Despite well-documented attention deficits in children with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD), distinctions across types of attention problems and their association with academic attainment has not been fully explored. This study examines visual attention capacities and inattentive/hyperactive behaviours in 77 children aged 4 to 11 years with IDD and elevated behavioural attention difficulties. Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD; n = 23), Down syndrome (DS; n = 22), and non-specific intellectual disability (NSID; n = 32) completed computerized visual search and vigilance paradigms. In addition, parents and teachers completed rating scales of inattention and hyperactivity. Concurrent associations between attention abilities and early literacy and numeracy skills were also examined. Children completed measures of receptive vocabulary, phonological abilities and cardinality skills. As expected, the results indicated that all groups had relatively comparable levels of inattentive/hyperactive behaviours as rated by parents and teachers. However, the extent of visual attention deficits varied as a result of group; namely children with DS had poorer visual search and vigilance abilities than children with ASD and NSID. Further, significant associations between visual attention difficulties and poorer literacy and numeracy skills were observed, regardless of group. Collectively the findings demonstrate that in children with IDD who present with homogenous behavioural attention difficulties, at the cognitive level, subtle profiles of attentional problems can be delineated.