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Abstract
The skin is an important extra-gonadal steroidogenic organ, capable of metabolizing various hormones from their precursors, as well as of synthesizing de novo a broad palette of sex steroids and glucocorticoids from cholesterol. In this manuscript, we review the major steroidogenic properties of human skin and we suggest steroidogenesis' impairment as a cardinal factor for various pathological conditions such as acne, rosacea, atopic dermatitis, and androgenic alopecia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgios Nikolakis
- Departments of Dermatology, Venereology, Allergology and Immunology, Dessau Medical Center, Auenweg 38, 06847, Dessau, Germany.
| | | | - Theodora Kanaki
- Departments of Dermatology, Venereology, Allergology and Immunology, Dessau Medical Center, Auenweg 38, 06847, Dessau, Germany
| | - Andrej Slominski
- Department of Dermatology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Christos C Zouboulis
- Departments of Dermatology, Venereology, Allergology and Immunology, Dessau Medical Center, Auenweg 38, 06847, Dessau, Germany
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Gollnick HP, Zouboulis CC. Not all acne is acne vulgaris. DEUTSCHES ARZTEBLATT INTERNATIONAL 2014; 111:301-12. [PMID: 24828100 PMCID: PMC4098044 DOI: 10.3238/arztebl.2014.0301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2013] [Revised: 03/19/2014] [Accepted: 03/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Acne is the most common skin disease in adolescence, with a prevalence of nearly 100%. About 60% of affected adolescents have mild acne for which they use non-prescription preparations without consulting a physician. The remaining 40% constitute the population of acne patients seen in medical practice. The course of acne can be either acute or chronic; its manifestations can appear in waves, sometimes with dramatically severe inflammation leading rapidly to scarring. Acne often has adverse emotional consequences. Its treatment is markedly better than in the past because of new pharmacological and physicochemical approaches and because evidence-based guidelines are now available. METHOD This article is based on a selective review of the literature and also incorporates the authors' own clinical and scientific experience. RESULTS Acne vulgaris of grade I or II in an adolescent is generally not hard to treat. In contrast, the more severe grades III and IV and conglobate acne often present a therapeutic challenge, as they are associated with varying constellations of acute lesions, scarring, inflammation, and emotional disturbances. These conditions often require systemic treatment with tetracyclines, which are especially useful because of their para-antibiotic antiinflammatory effect. Severe cases must be treated with isotretinoin. Women can benefit from anti-androgenic contraceptive drugs. Retinoids or azelaic acid are used in maintenance therapy to suppress the formation of microcomedones, the precursor stage of acne lesions. CONCLUSION A variety of effective treatments for acne are available, depending on the severity of the condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harald P Gollnick
- Department of Venerology and Dermatology, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg
| | - Christos C Zouboulis
- Departments of Dermatology, Venereology, Allergology and Immunology, Dessau Medical Center
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Slominski A, Zbytek B, Nikolakis G, Manna PR, Skobowiat C, Zmijewski M, Li W, Janjetovic Z, Postlethwaite A, Zouboulis CC, Tuckey RC. Steroidogenesis in the skin: implications for local immune functions. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2013; 137:107-23. [PMID: 23435015 PMCID: PMC3674137 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 249] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2012] [Revised: 01/07/2013] [Accepted: 02/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The skin has developed a hierarchy of systems that encompasses the skin immune and local steroidogenic activities in order to protect the body against the external environment and biological factors and to maintain local homeostasis. Most recently it has been established that skin cells contain the entire biochemical apparatus necessary for production of glucocorticoids, androgens and estrogens either from precursors of systemic origin or, alternatively, through the conversion of cholesterol to pregnenolone and its subsequent transformation to biologically active steroids. Examples of these products are corticosterone, cortisol, testosterone, dihydrotesterone and estradiol. Their local production can be regulated by locally produced corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) or cytokines. Furthermore the production of glucocorticoids is affected by ultraviolet B radiation. The level of production and nature of the final steroid products are dependent on the cell type or cutaneous compartment, e.g., epidermis, dermis, adnexal structures or adipose tissue. Locally produced glucocorticoids, androgens and estrogens affect functions of the epidermis and adnexal structures as well as local immune activity. Malfunction of these steroidogenic activities can lead to inflammatory disorders or autoimmune diseases. The cutaneous steroidogenic system can also have systemic effects, which are emphasized by significant skin contribution to circulating androgens and/or estrogens. Furthermore, local activity of CYP11A1 can produce novel 7Δ-steroids and secosteroids that are biologically active. Therefore, modulation of local steroidogenic activity may serve as a new therapeutic approach for treatment of inflammatory disorders, autoimmune processes or other skin disorders. In conclusion, the skin can be defined as an independent steroidogenic organ, whose activity can affect its functions and the development of local or systemic inflammatory or autoimmune diseases. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'CSR 2013'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrzej Slominski
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA; Center for Cancer Research, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA; Department of Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA.
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Shi G, Sohn KC, Li Z, Choi DK, Park YM, Kim JH, Fan YM, Nam YH, Kim S, Im M, Lee Y, Seo YJ, Kim CD, Lee JH. Expression and functional role of Sox9 in human epidermal keratinocytes. PLoS One 2013; 8:e54355. [PMID: 23349860 PMCID: PMC3548846 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0054355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2012] [Accepted: 12/11/2012] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
In this study, we investigated the expression and putative role of Sox9 in epidermal keratinocyte. Immunohistochemical staining showed that Sox9 is predominantly expressed in the basal layer of normal human skin epidermis, and highly expressed in several skin diseases including psoriasis, basal cell carcinoma, keratoacanthoma and squamous cell carcinoma. In calcium-induced keratinocyte differentiation model, the expression of Sox9 was decreased in a time dependent manner. When Sox9 was overexpressed using a recombinant adenovirus, cell growth was enhanced, while the expression of differentiation-related genes such as loricrin and involucrin was markedly decreased. Similarly, when rat skin was intradermally injected with the adenovirus expressing Sox9, the epidermis was thickened with increase of PCNA positive cells, while the epidermal differentiation was decreased. Finally, UVB irradiation induced Sox9 expression in cultured human epidermal keratinocytes, and keratinocytes are protected from UVB-induced apoptosis by Sox9 overexpression. Together, these results suggest that Sox9 is an important regulator of epidermal keratinocytes with putative pro-proliferation and/or pro-survival functions, and may be related to several cutaneous diseases that are characterized by abnormal differentiation and hyperproliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ge Shi
- Department of Dermatology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical College, Zhanjiang, China
- Department of Dermatology and Research Institute for Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Kyung-Cheol Sohn
- Department of Dermatology and Research Institute for Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Zhengjun Li
- Department of Dermatology and Research Institute for Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Dae-Kyoung Choi
- Department of Dermatology and Research Institute for Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Young Min Park
- Department of Dermatology, College of Medicine, Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Korea
| | | | - Yi-Ming Fan
- Department of Dermatology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical College, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Yong Hee Nam
- Department of Dermatology and Research Institute for Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Sooyeon Kim
- Department of Dermatology and Research Institute for Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Myung Im
- Department of Dermatology and Research Institute for Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Young Lee
- Department of Dermatology and Research Institute for Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Young-Joon Seo
- Department of Dermatology and Research Institute for Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Chang Deok Kim
- Department of Dermatology and Research Institute for Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Jeung-Hoon Lee
- Department of Dermatology and Research Institute for Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Korea
- * E-mail:
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Abstract
Peripherally active androgens control cellular functions by binding to androgen receptors. Follicular keratinocytes and sebocytes are target cells for androgens, which, directly or indirectly, stimulate keratinocyte proliferation and the volume of sebaceous glands as well as the sebum secretion rate. Acne often begins with the adrenarche, namely with the up- regulation of adrenal synthesis of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, a hormone that is upstream to testosterone. The majority of acne patients exhibit normal levels of circulating androgens, while sebaceous glands from acne regions exhibit a stronger sensitivity to androgens than the sebaceous glands from other parts of the body. Hormone-like active lipids, hormones in diet and neuropeptides may also play a role in the development of acne lesions. The target of antiandrogen treatment of the skin is mainly the sebaceous gland and the primary effect is sebostasis.
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Passeron T, Valencia JC, Bertolotto C, Hoashi T, Le Pape E, Takahashi K, Ballotti R, Hearing VJ. SOX9 is a key player in ultraviolet B-induced melanocyte differentiation and pigmentation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104:13984-9. [PMID: 17702866 PMCID: PMC1955778 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0705117104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
SOX (SRY type HMG box) proteins are transcription factors that are predominantly known for their roles during development. During melanocyte development from the neural crest, SOX10 regulates microphthalmia-associated transcription factor, which controls a set of genes critical for pigment cell development and pigmentation, including dopachrome tautomerase and tyrosinase. We report here that another SOX factor, SOX9, is expressed by melanocytes in neonatal and adult human skin and is up-regulated by UVB exposure. We demonstrate that this regulation is mediated by cAMP and protein kinase. We also show that agouti signal protein, a secreted factor known to decrease pigmentation, down-regulates SOX9 expression. In adult and neonatal melanocytes, SOX9 regulates microphthalmia-associated transcription factor, dopachrome tautomerase, and tyrosinase promoters, leading to an increase in the expression of these key melanogenic proteins and finally to a stimulation of pigmentation. SOX9 completes the complex and tightly regulated process leading to the production of melanin by acting at a very upstream level. This role of SOX9 in pigmentation emphasizes the poorly understood impact of SOX proteins in adult tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thierry Passeron
- *Pigment Cell Biology Section, Laboratory of Cell Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20814; and
| | - Julio C. Valencia
- *Pigment Cell Biology Section, Laboratory of Cell Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20814; and
| | - Corine Bertolotto
- Unité 597, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Nice Sophia–Antipolis, 06103 Nice, France
| | - Toshihiko Hoashi
- *Pigment Cell Biology Section, Laboratory of Cell Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20814; and
| | - Elodie Le Pape
- *Pigment Cell Biology Section, Laboratory of Cell Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20814; and
| | - Kaoruko Takahashi
- *Pigment Cell Biology Section, Laboratory of Cell Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20814; and
| | - Robert Ballotti
- Unité 597, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Nice Sophia–Antipolis, 06103 Nice, France
| | - Vincent J. Hearing
- *Pigment Cell Biology Section, Laboratory of Cell Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20814; and
- To whom correspondence may be addressed.
Laboratory of Cell Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Building 37, Room 2132, MSC 4256, Bethesda, MD 20892. E-mail:
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