Children in lesbian and single-parent households: psychosexual and psychiatric appraisal

Mindfulness group intervention improved self-compassion and resilience of children from single-parent families in Tibetan areas

OBJECTIVE

The current study aimed to examine the effects of a mindfulness group intervention on self-compassion, psychological resilience, and mental health of children from single-parent families in Tibetan areas.

METHODS

A total of 64 children from single-parent families in Tibetan areas were randomly allocated to a control group (n = 32) and an intervention group (n = 32). Participants in the control group received conventional education, while participants in the intervention group received 6-week mindfulness intervention in addition to the conventional education. Both groups completed the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ), Self-compassion Scale (SCS), Resilience Scale for Chinese Adolescent (RSCA), and the Mental Health Test (MHT) before and after the intervention.

RESULTS

After the intervention, the levels of mindfulness and self-compassion in the intervention group were significantly improved in relative to the control group. The positive cognition in the RSCA was significantly increased in the intervention group, whereas no significant change was observed in the control group. There was a trend towards lower self-blame in the MHT, but no significant impact of the intervention on the overall level of mental health was found.

CONCLUSION

Results suggest that a 6-week mindfulness training effectively improve self-compassion and resilience of single-parent children. Thus, mindfulness training as a cost-effective approach can be arranged in the curriculum, which helps students develop high level of self-compassion and resilience. In addition, there may be a need to improve emotional control in order to improve mental health.

Intersectional Analysis of the Life Course of LGBTQ+ Parent Families in Québec: Partial and Homonormative Inclusion

Over the past 20 years, Québec has seen significant legislative changes that have led to an increase in the number of families with LGBTQ+ parents. Moreover, Québec has been a pioneer in recognizing LGBTQ+ families since 2002 with Bill 84. In fact, no nation had gone as far in terms of recognition. However, despite this avant-garde legal context, which has made it possible for many same-sex couples to establish their families with greater ease and recognition, unequal access to this institution still affects LGBTQ+ parents. In fact, these parents do not all experience the same realities, and the possibilities for forming a family remain complex for many, especially for trans and non-binary parents. Based on 38 in-depth interviews with LGBTQ+ parents, this article explores the multiple forms of families and the different experiences of oppressions these families encounter based on their different social locations. These data are part of the important SAVIE-LGBTQ research partnership (SSHRC 2016-2023), which aims to identify the different experiences of inclusion and exclusion encountered by LGBTQ+ communities in Québec.

The psychological wellbeing of ART children: what have we learned from 40 years of research?

Our understanding of what makes a family has changed dramatically in recent decades due to advances in reproductive technologies accompanied by changing social attitudes. But what has the impact been on children? This article presents a summary of research on parent-child relationships and the psychological adjustment of children in families created by assisted reproduction. The findings show that families with lesbian mothers, gay fathers, and single mothers by choice, and families created by donor conception and surrogacy, are just as likely to flourish as traditional families, and sometimes more so, although the children from these families will sometimes face prejudiced attitudes from others. It is concluded that the quality of family relationships and the wider social environment matter more for children's psychological wellbeing than the number, gender, sexual orientation, or biological relatedness of their parents.

Life Finds a Way: Young Adults With Lesbian Mothers Reflect on Their Childhood Prior to Legal Recognition of Same-Sex Parents in Sweden

The strapline "life finds a way," from the classic movie Jurassic Park, referred to how the all-female dinosaurs in a theme park had been able to reproduce, despite the laws of nature. Similarly, the participants in the present study described how their lesbian mothers had shown that "life finds a way," when having children and forming a family, prior to the legal recognition of same-sex parents in Sweden. The study draws on interviews with eight young Swedish adults, aged 17-30 (average age 25). They had been raised by lesbian couples but were born prior to the legal recognition of same-sex parenthood. Prior to a legal change in 2003, a same-sex couple could not share legal parenthood. Further, female couples were excluded from Swedish assisted reproduction programs until 2005. The interviews have been analyzed thematically, and the article presents the results in four themes. The first theme, circumvent, oppose, or adapt to legal obstacles, shows the participants' reflections on how their parents navigated legal obstacles in order to have children and to live together as a family. The second theme, legal obstacles do not affect everyday life, depicts a common experience of how a lack of legal recognition seldom mattered to the participants during their childhood. Rather, they explained how their parents had been able to form parenthood and close relations without legal recognition. In contrast, the third theme describes occasions when legal parenthood matters. This theme highlights occasions when the lack of legal parenthood was problematic or devastating for the participants, such as when parents divorced, or one parent died. The final theme, the meaning of legal parents in adulthood, explores the participants' reflections on the meaning and impact of legal ties (or lack of legal ties) between themselves as young adults and their parents. The findings are discussed in relation to previous research on children and young adults with same-sex parents.

"We Were Among the First Non-traditional Families": Thematic Perceptions of Lesbian Parenting After 25 Years

In the sixth wave of the U.S. National Longitudinal Lesbian Family Study (NLLFS), when their offspring were 25 years old, the parents were asked to reflect on their most challenging and best experiences raising children in non-traditional families. The responses of 131 parents were interpreted through thematic analysis. The most challenging parenting experiences fell into five major categories: (1) distress about their children's experiences of exclusion, heterosexism, or homophobic stigmatization; (2) family of origin non-acceptance of their lesbian-parent family; (3) the never-ending process of "educating the world about queer parents"; (4) homophobia or hostility toward their non-traditional family; and (5) lack of legal protections for sexual minority parent (SMP) families. Their best parenting experiences included: (1) being role models, leading to a greater acceptance of LGBTQ people; (2) treasuring the LGBTQ parent and family community; (3) teaching their children to appreciate diversity of all types; and (4) witnessing their child's pride in their non-traditional family. Some of these challenges were anticipated by the parents more than a quarter century ago at the time that they were inseminating or pregnant with the index offspring.

Unconventional combinations of prospective parents: ethical challenges faced by IVF providers

Background

Professional guidelines have addressed ethical dilemmas posed by a few types of nontraditional procreative arrangements (e.g., gamete donations between family members), but many questions arise regarding how providers view and make decisions about these and other such arrangements.

Methods

Thirty-seven ART providers and 10 patients were interviewed in-depth for approximately 1 h each. Interviews were systematically analyzed.

Results

Providers faced a range of challenges and ethical dilemmas concerning both the content and the process of decisions about requests for unconventional interfamilial and other reproductive combinations. Providers vary in how they respond — what they decide, who exactly decides (e.g., an ethics committee or not), and how — often undergoing complex decision-making processes. These combinations can involve creating or raising the child, and can shift over time — from initial ART treatment through to the child’s birth. Patients’ requests can vary from fully established to mere possibilities. Arrangements may also be unstable, fluid, or unexpected, posing challenges. Difficulties emerge concerning not only familial but social, combinations (e.g., between friends). These arrangements can involve blurry and confusing roles, questions about the welfare of the unborn child, and unanticipated and unfamiliar questions about how to weigh competing moral and scientific concerns — e.g., the autonomy of the individuals involved, and the potential risks and benefits. Clinicians may feel that these requests do not “smell right”; and at first respond with feelings of “yuck,” and only later, carefully and explicitly consider the ethical principles involved. Proposed arrangements may, for instance, initially be felt to involve consanguineous individuals, but not in fact do so. Obtaining and verifying full and appropriate informed consent can be difficult, given implicit familial and/or cultural expectations and senses of duty. Social attitudes are changing, yet patients’ views of these issues may also vary, based on their cultural backgrounds.

Conclusions

These data, the first to examine how clinicians make decisions about unconventional reproductive arrangements, highlight several critical ethical questions and ambiguities, and variations in clinicians’ responses. While several professional guidelines exist, the current data highlight additional challenges, and have vital implications for improving future guidelines, practice, education and research.

Trial registration

Not applicable.

A Review and Critique of Research on Same-Sex Parenting and Adoption

Are the outcomes for children of gay, lesbian, or bisexual parents in general the same as those for heterosexual parents? That controversial question is discussed here in a detailed review of the social science literature in three parts: (1) stability of same-sex parental relationships, (2) child outcomes, and (3) child outcomes in same-sex adoption. Relationship instability appears to be higher among gay and lesbian parent couples and may be a key mediating factor influencing outcomes for children. With respect to part 2, while parental self-reports usually present few significant differences, social desirability or self-presentation bias may be a confounding factor. While some researchers have tended to conclude that there are no differences whatsoever in terms of child outcomes as a function of parental sexual orientation, such conclusions appear premature in the light of more recent data in which some different outcomes have been observed in a few studies. Studies conducted within the past 10 years that compared child outcomes for children of same-sex and heterosexual adoptive parents were reviewed. Numerous methodological limitations were identified that make it very difficult to make an accurate assessment of the effect of parental sexual orientation across adoptive families. Because of sampling limitations, we still know very little about family functioning among same-sex adoptive families with low or moderate incomes, those with several children, or those with older children, including adolescents or how family functioning may change over time. There remains a need for high-quality research on same-sex families, especially families with gay fathers and with lower income.

(De)Sexing the family

Many legal arguments pertaining to equal rights for gay and lesbian families have relied upon empirical research on the `healthy' childraising environment of these families. While neither disputing recent legal gains nor diminishing their importance, this article looks at some of the conceptual categories that drive this research. The limitations of such research, as salutary as it is, are typically understood in terms of their obvious political context. Such research avoids highlighting any differences between gay/lesbian families and traditional families because an emphasis on such differences feeds cultural stereotypes that are damaging to non-traditional families. This article takes a different tack, looking at how the concepts that frame research are based in binaries and fantasies about families and sex that we argue are too limiting. It assumes that the elision of sexuality within such studies is symptomatic of a broader repression of a variety of meanings of family. In response, the article brings in queer theory and psychoanalysis to broaden our approach to understanding new forms of family and kinship initiated by gay and lesbian families. The article addresses single household lesbian families that are most frequently the object of empirical research.

L’homoparentalité et la transparentalité au prisme des sciences sociales : révolution ou pluralisation des formes de parenté ?

Compte tenu des développements rapides tant des progrès scientifiques en matière de procréation que des pratiques sociales, l’homoparentalité et la transparentalité ont cristallisé de nombreuses interrogations portant sur la parenté ainsi que sur les définitions de la paternité et de la maternité dans plusieurs disciplines. L’homoparentalité et la transparentalité remettent en question le modèle biologique et biparental (une mère et un père) dans lequel les parents ont procréé leurs enfants ou peuvent passer pour l’avoir fait, et sont au plus au nombre de deux. Au-delà des inquiétudes concernant le développement psychologique des enfants nés dans ces types de famille, auxquelles de nombreuses études en psychologie ont tenté d’apporter une réponse, les familles homoparentales et transparentales offrent de nouvelles possibilités de questionnements et réflexions – que ce soit en sociologie, anthropologie, en droit de la famille et de la filiation. En effet, ces familles rassemblent dans leur diversité des situations de désintrication de la conjugalité, la procréation, la filiation et la parenté. Cette désintrication, qui met à mal le modèle dans lequel les dimensions procréative (être né de), légale (être fils/fille de) et affective (être élevé par) sont confondues, est aujourd’hui présente également dans plusieurs autres configurations familiales, notamment les recompositions familiales, le recours à la procréation assistée avec tiers donneur ou l’adoption.

Cet article introductif sera l’occasion de rappeler ce qu’on entend par homoparentalité et transparentalité, et fera dialoguer autour des enjeux soulevés par ces thématiques des travaux issus de disciplines différentes. Une revue de la littérature rassemblera ensuite les travaux menés sur l’homoparentalité depuis les années 1990, selon trois approches principales : psychologique, socio-anthropologique et socio-juridique. Enfin, les travaux sur la transparentalité, moins nombreux et plus récents, seront regroupés dans une partie distincte. Cet article s’achèvera par une présentation des articles constituant ce numéro.

Access to fertility treatment by gays, lesbians, and unmarried persons: a committee opinion

This statement explores the implications of reproduction by single individuals, unmarried heterosexual couples, and gay and lesbian couples, and concludes that ethical arguments supporting denial of access to fertility services on the basis of marital status or sexual orientation cannot be justified. This document replaces the previous version of this document by the same name, published in November 2006 (Fertil Steril 2009;92:1190-3).

Methodological decisions and the evaluation of possible effects of different family structures on children: The new family structures survey (NFSS)

Every social science researcher must make a number of methodological decisions when planning and implementing research projects. Each such decision carries with it both advantages and limitations. The decisions faced and made by Regnerus (2012) are discussed here in the wider context of social science literature regarding same-sex parenting. Even though the apparent outcomes of Regnerus's study were unpopular, the methodological decisions he made in the design and implementation of the New Family Structures Survey were not uncommon among social scientists, including many progressive, gay and lesbian scholars. These decisions and the research they produced deserve considerable and continued discussion, but criticisms of the underlying ethics and professionalism are misplaced because nearly every methodological decision that was made has ample precedents in research published by many other credible and distinguished scholars.

Same-sex parenting and children's outcomes: A closer examination of the American psychological association's brief on lesbian and gay parenting

In 2005, the American Psychological Association (APA) issued an official brief on lesbian and gay parenting. This brief included the assertion: "Not a single study has found children of lesbian or gay parents to be disadvantaged in any significant respect relative to children of heterosexual parents" (p. 15). The present article closely examines this assertion and the 59 published studies cited by the APA to support it. Seven central questions address: (1) homogeneous sampling, (2) absence of comparison groups, (3) comparison group characteristics, (4) contradictory data, (5) the limited scope of children's outcomes studied, (6) paucity of long-term outcome data, and (7) lack of APA-urged statistical power. The conclusion is that strong assertions, including those made by the APA, were not empirically warranted. Recommendations for future research are offered.

Lesbian mothers and their children: the third wave

Research regarding lesbian mothers and their children has gone through a transformation in the last forty years. The first wave of research examined lesbians who had become parents while in heterosexual relationships. The second wave examined women who became parents within the context of lesbian relationships. Both of these waves focused on family functioning and child outcome, using heterosexual-headed families as comparison groups. The third wave of research, which is now underway, is focusing on the unique challenges faced by these families, and how lesbian mothers are creating and raising their families on their own terms. This article explores the research as it has evolved over the years and the direction in which it is headed.

[Homosexual parenthood and child development: present data]

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this article is to provide an overview of existing studies on gay and lesbian parenthood and child development. Although 200,000 to 300,000 children could be concerned in 2010 in France, there is a lack of research on this issue in our country.

BACKGROUND

Research among children raised by homosexual parents involves methodological issues, such as defining homosexual families, sampling cases and controls, and choosing structured or semi-structured evaluations. The fact that homosexual marriage, adoption and insemination are not presently legal in France could explain that only one study has been conducted in France in 2000 among 58 children raided by homosexual parents. This study concluded that these children did not show an increased rate of behavior or anxiety disorders.

LITERATURE FINDINGS

Concerns about lesbian parenting have focused on the absence of a father, the homosexual orientation of the mother, and their negative consequences on the development of the children. Research on parenting and child rearing has repeatedly compared lesbian and heterosexual families, and in the last 30 years a growing body of studies on lesbian parents and the development of their children has been published. Studies about child development, sexual orientation, gender identity, gender role behavior, emotional/behavioral development, social relationships and cognitive functioning showed no difference between children of lesbian mothers and those of heterosexual parents. Likewise, parental functioning, the mothers' psychological health and maternal skills were not significantly different among lesbian mothers than among heterosexual mothers. In studies concerning gay fathers, findings generally indicate no differences in sexual orientation, socialization, or psychological outcomes in children of gay fathers compared to children of heterosexual fathers. However, the first study on the adult attachment style dimensions of adult women who had gay or bisexual fathers suggested that they were significantly less comfortable with closeness and intimacy, less able to trust and depend on others, and experienced more anxiety in relationships than women with heterosexual fathers. This survey has not been argued among lesbian families or coparentality.

DISCUSSION

Variables related to family processes, such as relationship quality, are currently considered more important predictors of children's adjustment in homosexual families than sexual orientation. The major part of the literature focused on children aged four to 16 and the small sample size (often less than 30 children) limit the validity of these data. However, very little is known about psychological characteristics or well-being of adult children of lesbian and gay parents, and research should be pursued in the future. Social relationships of children raised by homosexual families, their experience of difference, and the discrimination are also likely to vary with the culture of each country and was not evaluated to our knowledge to date in cross-cultural studies using standardized questionnaires.

CONCLUSION

Our practice must find new reference marks to understand the stakes and the difficulties of these configurations for a better empathy with the child and his/her family.

CHILDREN OF HOMOSEXUALS MORE APT TO BE HOMOSEXUALS? A REPLY TO MORRISON AND TO CAMERON BASED ON AN EXAMINATION OF MULTIPLE SOURCES OF DATA

Ten narrative studies involving family histories of 262 children of gay fathers and lesbian mothers were evaluated statistically in response to Morrison's (2007) concerns about Cameron's (2006) research that had involved three narrative studies. Despite numerous attempts to bias the results in favour of the null hypothesis and allowing for up to 20 (of 63, 32%) coding errors, Cameron's (2006) hypothesis that gay and lesbian parents would be more likely to have gay, lesbian, bisexual or unsure (of sexual orientation) sons and daughters was confirmed. Percentages of children of gay and lesbian parents who adopted non-heterosexual identities ranged between 16% and 57%, with odds ratios of 1.7 to 12.1, depending on the mix of child and parent genders. Daughters of lesbian mothers were most likely (33% to 57%; odds ratios from 4.5 to 12.1) to report non-heterosexual identities. Data from ethnographic sources and from previous studies on gay and lesbian parenting were re-examined and found to support the hypothesis that social and parental influences may influence the expression of non-heterosexual identities and/or behaviour. Thus, evidence is presented from three different sources, contrary to most previous scientific opinion, even most previous scientific consensus, that suggests intergenerational transfer of sexual orientation can occur at statistically significant and substantial rates, especially for female parents or female children. In some analyses for sons, intergenerational transfer was not significant. Further research is needed with respect to pathways by which intergenerational transfer of sexual orientation may occur. The results confirm an evolving tendency among scholars to cite the possibility of some degree of intergenerational crossover of sexual orientation.

Children's Gender Identity in Lesbian and Heterosexual Two-Parent Families

This study compared gender identity, anticipated future heterosexual romantic involvement, and psychosocial adjustment of children in lesbian and heterosexual families; it was furthermore assessed whether associations between these aspects differed between family types. Data were obtained in the Netherlands from children in 63 lesbian families and 68 heterosexual families. All children were between 8 and 12 years old. Children in lesbian families felt less parental pressure to conform to gender stereotypes, were less likely to experience their own gender as superior and were more likely to be uncertain about future heterosexual romantic involvement. No differences were found on psychosocial adjustment. Gender typicality, gender contentedness and anticipated future heterosexual romantic involvement were significant predictors of psychosocial adjustment in both family types.

Adjustment among mothers reporting same-gender sexual partners: a study of a representative population sample from Quebec Province (Canada)

We examined the well-being of mothers and non-mothers reporting exclusive opposite-gender sexual partners (OG), same-gender sexual partners (SG), or both (BI) in a representative sample of 20,773 participants (11,034 women) 15-years-old or older from the population of Quebec province in Canada. Participants completed a self-administered questionnaire and SG and BI women (n = 179) were matched to a sample of OG women (n = 179) based on age, income, geographical area, and children (having at least one 18-year-old or younger biological or adopted child at home). We assessed social milieu variables, risk factors for health disorders, mental health, and quality of mothers' relationship with children. The findings indicated a sexual orientation main effect: Mothers and non-mothers in the SG and BI group, as compared to their OG controls, were significantly less likely to live in a couple relationship, had significantly lower levels of social support, higher prevalence of early negative life events, substance abuse, suicide ideation, and higher levels of psychological distress. There were no Sexual Orientation X Parenthood status effects. The results further indicated that sexual orientation did not account for unique variance in women's psychological distress beyond that afforded by their social milieu, health risk factors, and parenthood status. No significant differences were found for the quality of mothers' relationship with children. SG-BI and OG mothers with low levels of social integration were significantly more likely to report problems with children than parents with high levels of social integration. We need to understand how marginal sexualities and their associated social stigma, as risk indicators for mothers, interact with other factors to impact family life, parenting skills, and children's adjustment.

[Psychopathology of children reared in lesbian families: literature review]

For several years, a growing number of children raised in lesbian families have been noticed. Even if this number is not really known, it appears clearly that more and more psychiatrists will have to care for children which will present this family configuration. The problem then is to know if this type of education has an incident on the psychopathology of children or not. The purpose of this article is not to give answer or to take side but just to help physicians to make a point of what is known about this subject in international literature.

Access to fertility treatment by gays, lesbians, and unmarried persons

This statement explores the implications of reproduction by single and homosexual individuals and concludes that ethical arguments supporting denial of access to fertility services on the basis of marital status or sexual orientation cannot be justified.

Embryonic stem-cell gametes: the new frontier in human reproduction

As infertility increases and gamete donations decline, an alternate source of sex cells may prove valuable for research and infertility treatment. This article examines the social and scientific value of gametes derived from the differentiation of established human embryonic stem (ES)-cell lines (ES-cell-derived gametes) and customized gametes created using nuclear transfer technologies to contain a haploid set of genes creating children genetically related to parent(s). ES-cell-derived gametes may be valuable as a resource for biomedical research, instruction and training in assisted reproductive technologies and perhaps for creating children. The creation of children by ES-cell-derived and customized gametes may not result in psychological harm to children but customized gametes may lead to physical harm to children or an accumulation of gene mutations in a population. Although the creation of new types of children using ES-cell gametes provides more reproductive choices to both fertile and infertile individuals, the risk or physical harm to children from customized gametes may be so severe that the scope of reproductive liberty must be limited. Further scientific and ethical analysis of the creation of children by ES-cell gametes is required.

Lesbian families and family functioning: an overview

OBJECTIVES

In the last 30 years a growing body of studies on lesbian parents and the development of children has been published.

METHODS

Four computerized databases were identified studies for inclusion in this review of research on lesbian families, namely PsychInfo, Educational Resources Information Centre (ERIC), Medline, and the Social Sciences Citation Index.

RESULTS

Forty-four empirical studies on lesbian families published between 1978 and 2003 were reviewed. In the research on lesbian families two phases were identified. To begin with, systematic studies on lesbian families focused on lesbian families with children who were born in a previous heterosexual relationship. More recently, studies included lesbian families whose children were born to the lesbian couple (planned lesbian families). In both phases, articles reporting results on children's development (such as sexual identity, emotional/behavioral development, social relationships and cognitive functioning), and parental functioning (such as mental psychological health and parenting skills). This paper presents and discusses major finding of the reviewed articles.

CONCLUSION

Studies in both phases have emphasized that lesbian and heterosexual families are very much alike. However, it is the stigma of lesbianism that makes the family situation of lesbian families different.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

Healthcare workers should be informed about the similarities and differences between lesbian families and heterosexual families, and about the non-traditional family situation of planned lesbian families.

Perinatal Mental Health in Lesbian Mothers: A Review of Potential Risk and Protective Factors

Postpartum depression and other perinatal mental illnesses are common complications of childbirth. The majority of research on these conditions has been conducted in heterosexual women; however, increasing numbers of women are choosing to parent in the context of lesbian relationships. Although many of the fundamental aspects of the transition to parenthood are shared between lesbian and heterosexual mothers, lesbian mothers may differ from heterosexual parents on a number of variables that have been previously associated with perinatal mental health. Lesbian mothers may be more likely than their heterosexual peers to lack social support, particularly from their families of origin, and may be exposed to additional stress due to homophobic discrimination. However, the likelihood that lesbian pregnancies will be planned, together with the relatively equal division of child-care labour observed in lesbian couples, may offer protection from perinatal depression. The study of perinatal mental health in lesbian mothers is warranted, both to ensure that the mental health needs of this largely invisible population are being met, and to further illuminate the role of psychosocial stress in perinatal mental health in all women.

Reproduction in same sex couples: quality of parenting and child development

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Same sex couples are steadily becoming more open about their relationships. One consequence of this growing openness is that more couples of the same sex are choosing to have children and infertility treatment centers are increasingly faced with requests for assistance in creating these families. The aim of this review is to address new trends in reproduction in same sex couples, to consider the quality of parenting in lesbian mother and gay father households, and to review the literature on the development of children raised by same sex couples.

RECENT FINDINGS

The current literature on these families is limited by small sample sizes and a predominance of studies of lesbian mothers and their children, with few studies of gay fathers and their children. A recent study of adolescents living with same sex parents recruited from a large national sample supports the notion that adolescents raised by same sex couples are doing well psychologically and are not more likely to be homosexual. The authors concluded that it was the quality of parenting, not parental sexual orientation that accounted for developmental differences.

SUMMARY

The literature supports the notion that children of lesbian mothers and gay fathers are not more likely to become homosexual and are not measurably different from children raised by heterosexual parents in terms of personality development, psychological development, and gender identity. Larger longitudinal studies of same sex parents, particularly gay men, are needed, including those who choose to become parents through the use of assisted reproduction.

Lesbian mothers, gay fathers, and their children: a review

There is a variety of families headed by a lesbian or gay male parent or same-sex couple. Findings from research suggest that children with lesbian or gay parents are comparable with children with heterosexual parents on key psychosocial developmental outcomes. In many ways, children of lesbian or gay parents have similar experiences of family life compared with children in heterosexual families. Some special considerations apply to the context of lesbian and gay parenting: variation in family forms, children's awareness of lesbian and gay relationships, heterosexism, and homophobia. These issues have important implications for managing clinical work with children of lesbian mothers or gay fathers.

Psychosocial adjustment, school outcomes, and romantic relationships of adolescents with same-sex parents

This study examined associations among family type (same-sex vs. opposite-sex parents); family and relationship variables; and the psychosocial adjustment, school outcomes, and romantic attractions and behaviors of adolescents. Participants included 44 12- to 18-year-old adolescents parented by same-sex couples and 44 same-aged adolescents parented by opposite-sex couples, matched on demographic characteristics and drawn from a national sample. Normative analyses indicated that, on measures of psychosocial adjustment and school outcomes, adolescents were functioning well, and their adjustment was not generally associated with family type. Assessments of romantic relationships and sexual behavior were not associated with family type. Regardless of family type, adolescents whose parents described closer relationships with them reported better school adjustment.