Vulnerable adolescent girls: opposite-sex relationships

Social factors associated with readiness for sexual activity in adolescents: a population-based cohort study

Various factors are associated with sexual activity in adolescence and it is important to identify those that promote healthy and adaptive romantic and sexual development. The objectives of this study were to describe rates of early sexual intercourse (before 16 years) and sexual readiness in adolescence and to assess the extent to which these were social patterned. We prospectively studied nearly 5,000 15-year-olds from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, a UK birth cohort. Between 2006 and 2008, female and male participants answered a computer assisted interview about romantic and sexual behaviors in the last year. Predictors of sexual intercourse and readiness for sexual intercourse were examined across a range of sociodemographic measures. Overall, 17.7% (95% CI 16.7%, 18.9%) of participants reported having had sexual intercourse in the last year, with more girls than boys reporting sexual experience (risk ratio 1.30, 95% CI 1.15, 1.47). Of these, one-third of both male and female were classed as unready because they were unwilling, lacking in autonomy, felt regret or had not used contraception. There was strong evidence of social patterning for sexual activity with higher rates for young people from poorer homes, with lower social class, and with younger, less educated mothers. In contrast, among 860 young people who had had sexual intercourse, there was no clear evidence of associations between social factors and sexual readiness. The lack of social patterning in sexual readiness supports the provision of comprehensive education to develop life skills for adolescents across all social groups.

Parental maltreatment and adulthood cohabiting partnerships: a life-course study of adult chronic depression--4

BACKGROUND

This fourth paper of a series of five concerning depression in women considers: i. why parental maltreatment increases risk of highly aversive ('very poor') partnerships, and ii. how far these relationships explain the link of such maltreatment with adult chronic depression.

METHODS

Data was collected retrospectively by semi-structured interviews and only women living at some point with a partner included.

RESULTS

Parental maltreatment was indirectly linked to chronic depression via highly aversive partnerships. This was partly mediated by childhood conduct problems. However, a broader range of behaviour in late adolescence and early adulthood such as early risky sexual behaviour among those without conduct problems was also involved. In addition parental maltreatment was directly linked to chronic depression, judged by a substantial remaining association when other risk factors were controlled. Highly aversive partnerships were less common by the late 20s while this was matched by an increase of 'very poor' circumstances among those no longer living with a partner. This increase often involved lone motherhood, an established risk factor for chronic depression.

LIMITATIONS

These findings should be seen as tentative given the retrospective nature of many of the measures (But see the second paper in the present series [Brown, G.W., Craig, T.K.J., Harris, T.O., Handley, R.V., & Harvey, A.L. (2007b). Validity of retrospective measures of early maltreatment and depressive episodes using CECA (Childhood Experience of Care & Abuse)--A life-course study of adult chronic depression--2. J. Affect. Disord., 103, 217-224]. Only women were studied.

CONCLUSIONS

Parental maltreatment relates indirectly to adult chronic episodes of depression with highly aversive partnerships playing an important mediating role. Parental maltreatment also has a direct link. While these results are broadly consistent with earlier research a more complete understanding of the mechanisms acting across the life-course requires an assessment of a wider range of factors around the time of an onset of depression. This is the task of our next and final paper.

Dating violence and the health of young women: a feminist narrative study

Dating violence is a significant public health problem in the lives of young women. Their age, in conjunction with perceived pressures to engage in intimate relationships, makes these women particularly vulnerable to dating violence. The pressures to be in relationships can be intense and therefore may add to young women's willingness to overlook, forgive, or excuse the violence that is occurring. The authors' purposes in this feminist study were to examine the experience of dating violence from young women's perspectives; investigate how contextual factors shape their experiences; examine how health is shaped by these experiences; and explore ways that dating violence is perpetuated and normalized in young women's lives. Findings revealed that family environment and gender are critical in shaping young women's experiences. The participants described a range of physical and emotional health problems and perceived few sources of support. Their efforts to obtain support were often met with skeptical and dismissive attitudes on the part of health care providers and other trusted adults. Recommendations for health care practice, education, and research are presented.

Problem behavior and romantic relationships: assortative mating, behavior contagion, and desistance

Antisocial behavior and substance misuse are forms of problem behavior demonstrating considerable continuity over time. Accordingly, problem behavior influences interpersonal contexts across the life course, which may result in the replication of coercive interactions and a problem behavior lifestyle within romantic relationships. Furthermore, theories of self-selection, and associated research, suggest that individuals pick companions compatible with, and supportive of, their behavior, leading to high levels of similarity between romantic partners and the potential reinforcement of problem behavior over time. However, some research suggests that romantic relationships may play a positive role and facilitate desistance from problem behavior. The purpose of this paper is to explore how antisocial behavior and substance use both influence and are influenced by romantic relationships in late adolescence and early adulthood. We first review research regarding the extent of, and processes underlying, partner similarity in problem behavior. Next, we examine how romantic relationships may promote the desistance of problem behavior. Finally, we discuss possible moderators of the association between problem behavior and romantic relationships, as well as limitations, intergenerational implications, and recommended future directions of the reviewed research.

Preventing Behavior Problems and Health-risking Behaviors in Girls in Foster Care

Transition into middle school presents complex challenges, including exposure to a larger peer group, increased expectations for time management and self-monitoring, renegotiation of rules with parents, and pubertal changes. For children in foster care, this transition is complicated by their maltreatment histories, living situation changes, and difficulty explaining their background to peers and teachers. This vulnerability is especially pronounced for girls in foster care, who have often experienced sexual abuse and are at risk for associating with older antisocial males. Failures in middle school can initiate processes with cascading negative effects, including delinquency, substance abuse, mental health problems, and health-risking sexual behaviors. An intervention is described to prevent these problems along with a research design aimed at testing the intervention efficacy underlying mechanisms of change.

Association with delinquent peers: intervention effects for youth in the juvenile justice system

Although association with delinquent peers is a recognized precursor to ongoing delinquency problems, youth in the juvenile justice system are commonly prescribed intervention services that aggregate delinquent youth. However, little is known about the process variables that mediate the relationship between aggregating youth in intervention settings and poor subsequent outcomes. We examined data from two randomized intervention trials (one male sample and one female sample) with delinquent adolescents placed either in Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care (MTFC) or in group care. Path analyses suggested that the MTFC youth had fewer associations with delinquent peers at 12 months than did the group care youth. Further, associating with delinquent peers during the course of the intervention mediated the relationship between group condition and 12-month delinquent peer association. Implications for the development of interventions with delinquent youth are discussed.

The adolescent outcome of hyperactive girls. Self-reported interpersonal relationships and coping mechanisms

The aim of the study was to clarify the developmental risk for interpersonal relationship problems and ineffective coping strategies associated with hyperactive behaviour in girls in a longitudinal epidemiological design. This was investigated in a follow-up study of girls who were identified by parent and teacher ratings in a large community survey of 6- and 7-year-olds as showing pervasive hyperactivity or conduct problems or the comorbid mixture of both problems or neither problem. They were later investigated, at the age of 14-16 years, in a detailed interview. Childhood hyperactivity was a risk for disrupted relationships in adolescence with peers and the opposite sex, but not parents. Findings were independent of the existence of conduct problems. Hyperactivity was a risk for the use of a wide variety of ineffective coping strategies. On the other hand, conduct problem girls reported applying specific coping strategies, but rated these to be ineffective. It is concluded that early therapeutic interventions targeting the development of social skills and problem-solving skills are required in order to help overcome these problems in later life.

Interpersonal relationships and sex differences in the development of conduct problems

This article investigates the role of interpersonal relationships in shaping sex differences in the manifestation, etiology, and developmental course of conduct problems and their treatment needs. The review examines whether: (1) Girls' conduct problems are more likely than boys' to manifest as a function of disrupted relationships with caretakers and peers; (2) For girls more than for boys, the outcomes of conduct problems in adolescence and adulthood, and related treatment needs, are more likely to be a consequence of the quality of interpersonal relationships with others, particularly opposite-sex peers and partners. Evidence reviewed suggests that boys and girls share many similarities in their expression of conduct problems, but that a relational perspective does unify important differences. There is fair evidence that girls with conduct problems are more likely to come to the attention of authorities because of chaotic, unstable family relationships, and to express antisocial behavior in the context of close relationships; there is stronger evidence that the course and outcomes of conduct problems in females versus males pertain to interpersonal relationship impairments. Those sex differences map onto specific differences in treatment needs. Further empirical testing of the proposed relational model is indicated.

Are There Biological Programming Effects for Psychological Development? Findings From a Study of Romanian Adoptees

Associations between experiences and outcomes could be due to (a) continuation of adversity or (b) organismic changes, including experience-expectant and experience-adaptive developmental programming. The adoption into British families of children who had been reared in profoundly depriving institutions in Romania presented an opportunity to test mechanisms. Romanian children reared from infancy in very depriving institutions for periods up to 42 months were compared with 52 nondeprived UK-born children placed into adoptive families before the age of 6 months. The results at 6 years of age showed substantial normal cognitive and social functioning after the provision of family rearing but also major persistent deficits in a substantial minority. The pattern of findings suggests some form of early biological programming or neural damage stemming from institutional deprivation, but the heterogeneity in outcome indicates that the effects are not deterministic.

Gender differences in developmental pathways on self-evaluation from adolescence into adulthood: the Flanders longitudinal study

The aim of this study was to look for possible gender differences in self-evaluation in adolescence, young adulthood, and full adulthood. Subjects were interviewed at three stages: in adolescence, 8 years, and 15 years later. Hypotheses were: (a) The connection between self-evaluation in adolescence and in adulthood is stronger in girls than in boys. However, for both boys and girls there is a strong connection between young adulthood and full adulthood ("the self-evaluation-triad" hypothesis); (b) The "schooling" factor has a different effect on the self-evaluation triad for boys and girls. Results showed that different psychosocial developmental pathways apply to boys and girls. Also, working girls with a negative self-evaluation in adolescence were more vulnerable to negative self-evaluation in adulthood.

Annotation: The 'effects' of parenting reconsidered: findings, challenges, and applications

BACKGROUND

Questions remain concerning the 'effects' of parenting on behavioural/emotional problems in children. This annotation discusses recent findings concerning the parenting 'effects' literature and identifies areas in need of further research.

METHOD

The review begins by examining theories and definitions of parenting, and then considers research findings on the predictors of parent-child relationships and their effects on behavioural/emotional adjustment in children. Evidence for causal processes are then examined in light of findings emphasizing the need to consider the impact of larger systems on child's well-being, bi-directional processes in parent-child interactions, and alternative hypotheses suggested by behavioural genetics.

RESULTS

Different kinds of evidence suggest strong links between parent-child relationship quality and children's well-being, but difficulties remain for drawing causal connections. The need for greater integration among research traditions and the need for theory development are highlighted. In addition, although a substantial and robust research base exists on parent-child relationships, the applicability of these findings to clinical settings is uncertain.

CONCLUSIONS

Substantial progress has been made in our understanding of the nature of parent-child relationships and their developmental effects, but a number of basic conceptual and methodological and clinical questions continue to need rigorous study.

Deviant partner involvement and offending risk in early adulthood

BACKGROUND

This paper examines the effects of deviant and non-deviant partner involvement at age 21 on patterns of continuity and change in offending between the ages of 18 and 21 years in a birth cohort of 983 young men and women.

RESULTS

Results showed that those involved with a non-deviant partner had lower rates of offending at age 21 than those with no partner, whilst those without a partner had lower rates of offending at age 21 than those involved with a deviant partner. Associations between deviant/non-deviant partner involvement and offending risk best fitted a main effects model in which both offending at age 18 and young people's partnership choices at age 21 made independent and additive contributions to the prediction of offending at age 21. There was no interaction between offending at age 18 and partner choice at age 21 in determining offending risk in early adulthood. In addition, the effects of deviant/non-deviant partner involvement on patterns of offending were the same for men and women, and were found to persist even after extensive control for the confounding effects of a wide range of selection factors measured during childhood and adolescence.

CONCLUSION

These results highlight the importance of partnership choices during early adulthood in determining young people's risk of offending as adults.

Diverse aspects of dating: associations with psychosocial functioning from early to middle adolescence

Theories imply that some aspects of adolescent dating behavior will be associated with individuals' positive psychosocial functioning, while other aspects will be associated with problems. This study addressed associations between diverse aspects of dating at age 16 and: (1) individual and social functioning at age 12 and at age 16; and (2) change in psychosocial functioning from age 12 to age 16. Controlling for physical maturity, overinvolvement in dating at age 16 was associated with poorer psychosocial functioning in early and middle adolescence and also predicted declines in functioning between the two ages. Level of dating experience and quality of romantic relationships were associated with social adaptation at age 16, especially in the friendship and dating domains.

Rejection sensitivity and adolescent girls' vulnerability to relationship-centered difficulties

Rejection sensitivity (RS)--the disposition to defensively expect, readily perceive, and intensely react to rejection--is a potential source of vulnerability for adolescent girls' relationship difficulties. RS is thought to develop from rejection experiences, including maltreatment. When adolescent girls enter romantic relationships, RS may prompt vigilance for rejection cues and reactions to perceived rejection that are maladaptive, including hostility. To preserve their romantic relationships, high RS girls may behave in ways that increase their risk of victimization or other negative outcomes. These claims were tested with longitudinal data from 154 minority, economically disadvantaged, middle school girls. RS prospectively predicted insecurity about a boyfriend's commitment and also a willingness to do things known to be wrong to maintain the relationship. RS predicted more physical aggression and nonphysical hostility during romantic conflicts. Implications for a relationship-centered approach to adolescent girls' characteristic vulnerabilities are discussed.

Dating experiences of bullies in early adolescence

In this study, 196 young adolescents who reported that they bullied their peers were identified out of a sample of 1,758 students in Grades 5 through 8. After selecting from the total sample a group of nonbullying youth who were matched on gender, school, and grade, a comparison was made of the groups' dating experiences, quality of friend and boyfriend or girlfriend relationships, and acts of physical and social aggression. The results indicated that bullies started dating earlier and engaged in more advanced dyadic dating than comparison adolescents. Bullies were highly relationship oriented, yet their views of their friends and boyfriends or girlfriends were less positive and less equitable than the comparison adolescents. Finally, bullies were more likely to report physical and social aggression with their boyfriends or girlfriends. Although the bullies reported more advanced pubertal development, this factor did not fully account for their dating precocity and negative romantic relationships. The results confirmed our hypotheses that adolescents whose peer relationships are characterized by bullying are at risk in their development of healthy romantic relationships.

Adolescent friendships mediating childhood adversity and adult outcome

This interview-based study compares the friendships of 50 girls, aged 15-16, identified on the basis of their childhood experiences as being at-risk for difficulties in early adult partnerships, with the friendships of 50 girls of the same age from an inner-city school. Key differences in the features of both romantic and non-romantic adolescent friendships between the two groups of girls give a clearer understanding of the processes linking childhood adversity and poor adult outcome.