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Liu D, Piao J, Li Y, Guan H, Hao J, Zhou R. Transcriptome Analysis Reveals Candidate Genes for Light Regulation of Elsinochrome Biosynthesis in Elsinoë arachidis. Microorganisms 2024; 12:1027. [PMID: 38792856 PMCID: PMC11124282 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12051027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2024] [Revised: 05/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Light regulation is critical in fungal growth, development, morphogenesis, secondary metabolism, and the biological clock. The fungus Elsinoë arachidis is known to produce the mycotoxin Elsinochrome (ESC), a key factor contributing to its pathogenicity, under light conditions. Although previous studies have predominantly focused on the light-induced production of ESC and its biosynthetic pathways, the detailed mechanisms underlying this process remain largely unexplored. This study explores the influence of light on ESC production and gene expression in E. arachidis. Under white light exposure for 28 days, the ESC yield was observed to reach 33.22 nmol/plug. Through transcriptome analysis, 5925 genes were identified as differentially expressed between dark and white light conditions, highlighting the significant impact of light on gene expression. Bioinformatics identified specific light-regulated genes, including eight photoreceptor genes, five global regulatory factors, and a cluster of 12 genes directly involved in the ESC biosynthesis, with expression trends confirmed by RT-qPCR. In conclusion, the study reveals the substantial alteration in gene expression associated with ESC biosynthesis under white light and identifies potential candidates for in-depth functional analysis. These findings advance understanding of ESC biosynthesis regulation and suggest new strategies for fungal pathogenicity control.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Rujun Zhou
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China; (D.L.); (J.P.); (Y.L.); (H.G.); (J.H.)
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2
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Dauda WP, Singh Rana V, Solanke AU, Krishnan G, Bashya BM, Aggarwal R, Shanmugam V. Metabolomic analysis of sheath blight disease of rice (Oryza sativa L.) induced by Rhizoctonia solani phytotoxin. J Appl Microbiol 2022; 133:3215-3227. [PMID: 35957552 DOI: 10.1111/jam.15776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Revised: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
AIM To understand the mechanism of necrosis incited by a host-selective phytotoxin designated as Rhizoctonia solani toxin (RST) identified to be a potential pathogenic factor of Rhizoctonia solani AG1 IA, causing sheath blight (ShB) of rice. METHODS AND RESULTS The metabolomic changes induced by the phytotoxic metabolite in a ShB susceptible rice cultivar were elucidated by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis and compared with that of the pathogen to identify rice metabolites targeted by the phytotoxin. The profiles of about 29 metabolites with various physiological roles in rice plants have been identified worldwide. Unsupervised and supervised multivariate chemometrics (Principal Component Analysis, PCA and Partial Least Squares-Discriminant Analysis, PLS-DA) and cluster (Heat maps) analyses were used to compare the metabolites obtained from chemical profiles of the treatments with sterile distilled water (SDW) control. The results indicated that the rice plant expressed more metabolites in response to the pathogen than the phytotoxin and was lowest in SDW control. The key metabolites expressed in rice in response to the treatments were investigated by the Variable Importance in Projection (VIP) analysis using P< 0.05 VIP >15. The analysis identified 7 and 11 upregulating metabolites in the phytotoxin and the pathogen treatments, respectively, compared to the untreated control. Among the phytotoxin-treated and the pathogen inoculated samples, the phytotoxin treated sample recorded upregulation of 6 metabolites, whereas 9 metabolites were upregulated in the pathogen inoculated samples. These upregulating metabolites are speculated for the necrotic symptoms characteristic to both the phytotoxin and pathogen. In this analysis, hexadecanoic acid and dotriacontane were highly expressed metabolites specific to the phytotoxin and pathogen-treated samples, respectively. Besides upregulation, the metabolites also have a VIP score of >1.5 and hence fulfilled the criteria of classifying them as reliable potential biomarkers. In the pathway analysis, hexadecanoic acid and dotriacontane were identified to be involved in several important biosynthetic pathways of rice, such as the biosynthesis of saturated fatty acid and unsaturated fatty acids cutin, suberin, and wax. CONCLUSIONS The study concludes that though certain metabolites induced by the phytotoxin in the susceptible variety during necrosis shares with that of the pathogen, the identification of metabolites specific to the phytotoxin in comparison to the pathogenic and SDW controls indicated that the phytotoxin modulates the host metabolism differently and hence can be a potential pathogenicity factor of the ShB fungus. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY Due to lack of knowledge on the pathway genes of RST and in the absence of an ShB resistant variety, understanding differentially expressed metabolic changes induced in the susceptible variety by the phytotoxin in comparison to that of the pathogenic and uninoculated controls enables us to identify the key metabolite changes during the ShB infection. Such metabolomic changes can further be used to infer gene functions for exploitation in ShB control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wadzani Palnam Dauda
- ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India.,Crop Science Unit, Department of Agronomy, Federal University, Nigeria
| | | | | | - Gopala Krishnan
- ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India
| | | | - Rashmi Aggarwal
- ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India
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3
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Jiao W, Xu M, Zhou R, Fu Y, Li Z, Xue C. Genomic analysis of Elsinoë arachidis reveals its potential pathogenic mechanism and the biosynthesis pathway of elsinochrome toxin. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0261487. [PMID: 34914789 PMCID: PMC8675698 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0261487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Elsinochromes (ESCs) are virulence factors produced by Elsinoë arachidis which is the cause of peanut scab. However, the biosynthesis pathway of ESCs in E. arachidis has not been elucidated and the potential pathogenic mechanism of E. arachidis is poorly understood. In this study, we report a high-quality genome sequence of E. arachidis. The size of the E. arachidis genome is 33.18Mb, which is comparable to the Ascomycota genome (average 36.91 Mb), encoding 9174 predicted genes. The self-detoxification family including transporters and cytochrome P450 enzymes were analysis, candidate effectors and cell wall degrading enzymes were investigated as the pathogenicity genes by using PHI and CAZy databases. Additionally, the E. arachidis genome contains 24 secondary metabolism gene clusters, in which ESCB1 was identified as the core gene of ESC biosynthesis. Taken together, the genome sequence of E. arachidis provides a new route to explore its potential pathogenic mechanism and the biosynthesis pathway of ESCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenli Jiao
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Mengxue Xu
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Rujun Zhou
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
- * E-mail:
| | - Yiwei Fu
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Zibo Li
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Caiyun Xue
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
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4
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Li Z, dos Santos RF, Gao L, Chang P, Wang X. Current status and future prospects of grapevine anthracnose caused by Elsinoe ampelina: An important disease in humid grape-growing regions. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2021; 22:899-910. [PMID: 34096145 PMCID: PMC8295512 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.13076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2020] [Revised: 03/21/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Anthracnose, caused by Elsinoe ampelina, is one of the most destructive diseases of grapevines worldwide, especially in humid areas. E. ampelina mainly infects young tissues starting from shoots to berries and affects vine vigour and berry yield. The occurrence and the role of the sexual stage in the disease cycle and the grapevine-E. ampelina interaction remain poorly understood. However, the recent genome sequence data of E. ampelina provides the basis for further studies to understand its evolution, pathogenicity mechanisms, and effector repertoire. New studies on E. ampelina have been conducted in recent years. In this pathogen profile, we present a comprehensive literature review of E. ampelina to summarize the findings on its aetiology, infection mechanisms, genome, pathogenicity, and host resistance. TAXONOMY Elsinoe ampelina Shear; Kingdom Fungi; Phylum Ascomycota; Subphylum Pezizomycotina; Class Dothideomycetes; Subclass Dothideomycetidae; Order Myriangiales Starbäck; Family Elsinoaceae Höhnel; Genus Elsinoe Racib. HOST RANGE E. ampelina only infects Vitis species and hybrids. DISTRIBUTION The grapevine anthracnose is distributed worldwide but is most prevalent in Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, India, Japan, Korea, New Zealand, South Africa, Thailand, USA, and Uruguay. DISEASE SYMPTOMS E. ampelina causes slightly abundant depressed spots on young leaves, petioles, stems, tendrils, rachises, and berries. Under severe infection conditions, early defoliation, berry dropping, and delayed berry development and ripening may occur. GENOME The genomes of two E. ampelina isolates, YL-1 and CECT 20119, are publicly released with 8,057 and 10,207 predicted genes, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology in Arid AreasCollege of HorticultureNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingChina
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology and Germplasm Innovation in Northwest ChinaMinistry of AgricultureNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingChina
| | - Ricardo Feliciano dos Santos
- Departament of Plant Pathology and NematologyLuiz de Queiroz College of AgricultureUniversidade de São PauloPiracicaba, São PauloBrazil
| | - Linlin Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology in Arid AreasCollege of HorticultureNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingChina
| | - Pingping Chang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology in Arid AreasCollege of HorticultureNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingChina
| | - Xiping Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology in Arid AreasCollege of HorticultureNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingChina
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology and Germplasm Innovation in Northwest ChinaMinistry of AgricultureNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingChina
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Gluck-Thaler E, Haridas S, Binder M, Grigoriev IV, Crous PW, Spatafora JW, Bushley K, Slot JC. The Architecture of Metabolism Maximizes Biosynthetic Diversity in the Largest Class of Fungi. Mol Biol Evol 2021; 37:2838-2856. [PMID: 32421770 PMCID: PMC7530617 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msaa122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Ecological diversity in fungi is largely defined by metabolic traits, including the ability to produce secondary or “specialized” metabolites (SMs) that mediate interactions with other organisms. Fungal SM pathways are frequently encoded in biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs), which facilitate the identification and characterization of metabolic pathways. Variation in BGC composition reflects the diversity of their SM products. Recent studies have documented surprising diversity of BGC repertoires among isolates of the same fungal species, yet little is known about how this population-level variation is inherited across macroevolutionary timescales. Here, we applied a novel linkage-based algorithm to reveal previously unexplored dimensions of diversity in BGC composition, distribution, and repertoire across 101 species of Dothideomycetes, which are considered the most phylogenetically diverse class of fungi and known to produce many SMs. We predicted both complementary and overlapping sets of clustered genes compared with existing methods and identified novel gene pairs that associate with known secondary metabolite genes. We found that variation among sets of BGCs in individual genomes is due to nonoverlapping BGC combinations and that several BGCs have biased ecological distributions, consistent with niche-specific selection. We observed that total BGC diversity scales linearly with increasing repertoire size, suggesting that secondary metabolites have little structural redundancy in individual fungi. We project that there is substantial unsampled BGC diversity across specific families of Dothideomycetes, which will provide a roadmap for future sampling efforts. Our approach and findings lend new insight into how BGC diversity is generated and maintained across an entire fungal taxonomic class.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emile Gluck-Thaler
- Department of Plant Pathology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH.,Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Sajeet Haridas
- US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA
| | | | - Igor V Grigoriev
- US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA.,Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA
| | - Pedro W Crous
- Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Joseph W Spatafora
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR
| | - Kathryn Bushley
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Jason C Slot
- Department of Plant Pathology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH
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6
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Li Z, Wang Y, Fan Y, Ahmad B, Wang X, Zhang S, Zhu Y, Gao L, Chang P, Wang X. Transcriptome Analysis of the Grape- Elsinoë ampelina Pathosystem Reveals Novel Effectors and a Robust Defense Response. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2021; 34:110-121. [PMID: 33006532 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-08-20-0227-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Elsinoë ampelina is an ascomycetous fungus that causes grape anthracnose, a potentially devastating disease worldwide. In this study, a dual RNA-seq analysis was used to simultaneously monitor the fungal genes related to pathogenesis and grape genes related to defense during the interaction at 2, 3, 4, and 5 days postinoculation. Consistent with their potential roles in pathogenicity, genes for carbohydrate-active enzymes, secondary metabolite synthesis, pathogen-host interaction, and those encoding secreted proteins are upregulated during infection. Based on Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transient assays in Nicotiana benthamiana, we further showed that eight and nine candidate effectors, respectively, suppressed BAX- and INF1-mediated programmed cell death. The host response was characterized by the induction of multiple defense systems against E. ampelina, including synthesis of phenylpropanoids, stilbenes, and terpenoid biosynthesis, cell-wall modifications, regulation by phytohormones, and expression of defense-related genes. Together, these findings offer new insights into molecular mechanisms underlying the grape-E. ampelina interaction.[Formula: see text] Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology in Arid Areas, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology and Germplasm Innovation in Northwest China, Ministry of Agriculture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Ya Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology in Arid Areas, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology and Germplasm Innovation in Northwest China, Ministry of Agriculture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Yanchun Fan
- College of Forestry, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Bilal Ahmad
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology in Arid Areas, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology and Germplasm Innovation in Northwest China, Ministry of Agriculture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Xianhang Wang
- College of Enology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Songlin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology in Arid Areas, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology and Germplasm Innovation in Northwest China, Ministry of Agriculture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Yanxun Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology in Arid Areas, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology and Germplasm Innovation in Northwest China, Ministry of Agriculture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Linlin Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology in Arid Areas, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology and Germplasm Innovation in Northwest China, Ministry of Agriculture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Pingping Chang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology in Arid Areas, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology and Germplasm Innovation in Northwest China, Ministry of Agriculture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Xiping Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology in Arid Areas, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology and Germplasm Innovation in Northwest China, Ministry of Agriculture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
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7
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Jeffress S, Arun-Chinnappa K, Stodart B, Vaghefi N, Tan YP, Ash G. Genome mining of the citrus pathogen Elsinoë fawcettii; prediction and prioritisation of candidate effectors, cell wall degrading enzymes and secondary metabolite gene clusters. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0227396. [PMID: 32469865 PMCID: PMC7259788 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0227396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Elsinoë fawcettii, a necrotrophic fungal pathogen, causes citrus scab on numerous citrus varieties around the world. Known pathotypes of E. fawcettii are based on host range; additionally, cryptic pathotypes have been reported and more novel pathotypes are thought to exist. E. fawcettii produces elsinochrome, a non-host selective toxin which contributes to virulence. However, the mechanisms involved in potential pathogen-host interactions occurring prior to the production of elsinochrome are unknown, yet the host-specificity observed among pathotypes suggests a reliance upon such mechanisms. In this study we have generated a whole genome sequencing project for E. fawcettii, producing an annotated draft assembly 26.01 Mb in size, with 10,080 predicted gene models and low (0.37%) coverage of transposable elements. A small proportion of the assembly showed evidence of AT-rich regions, potentially indicating genomic regions with increased plasticity. Using a variety of computational tools, we mined the E. fawcettii genome for potential virulence genes as candidates for future investigation. A total of 1,280 secreted proteins and 276 candidate effectors were predicted and compared to those of other necrotrophic (Botrytis cinerea, Parastagonospora nodorum, Pyrenophora tritici-repentis, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and Zymoseptoria tritici), hemibiotrophic (Leptosphaeria maculans, Magnaporthe oryzae, Rhynchosporium commune and Verticillium dahliae) and biotrophic (Ustilago maydis) plant pathogens. Genomic and proteomic features of known fungal effectors were analysed and used to guide the prioritisation of 120 candidate effectors of E. fawcettii. Additionally, 378 carbohydrate-active enzymes were predicted and analysed for likely secretion and sequence similarity with known virulence genes. Furthermore, secondary metabolite prediction indicated nine additional genes potentially involved in the elsinochrome biosynthesis gene cluster than previously described. A further 21 secondary metabolite clusters were predicted, some with similarity to known toxin producing gene clusters. The candidate virulence genes predicted in this study provide a comprehensive resource for future experimental investigation into the pathogenesis of E. fawcettii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Jeffress
- Centre for Crop Health, Institute for Life Sciences and the Environment, Research and Innovation Division, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia
| | - Kiruba Arun-Chinnappa
- Centre for Crop Health, Institute for Life Sciences and the Environment, Research and Innovation Division, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia
| | - Ben Stodart
- Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation, (Charles Sturt University and NSW Department of Primary Industries), School of Agricultural and Wine Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW, Australia
| | - Niloofar Vaghefi
- Centre for Crop Health, Institute for Life Sciences and the Environment, Research and Innovation Division, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia
| | - Yu Pei Tan
- Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Queensland Government, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Gavin Ash
- Centre for Crop Health, Institute for Life Sciences and the Environment, Research and Innovation Division, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia
- Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation, (Charles Sturt University and NSW Department of Primary Industries), School of Agricultural and Wine Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW, Australia
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Ma YJ, Zheng LP, Wang JW. Inducing perylenequinone production from a bambusicolous fungus Shiraia sp. S9 through co-culture with a fruiting body-associated bacterium Pseudomonas fulva SB1. Microb Cell Fact 2019; 18:121. [PMID: 31277643 PMCID: PMC6612088 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-019-1170-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2019] [Accepted: 06/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Fungal perylenequinonoid (PQ) pigments from Shiraia fruiting body have been well known as excellent photosensitizers for medical and agricultural uses. The fruiting bodies are colonized by a diverse bacterial community of unknown function. We screened the companion bacteria from the fruiting body of Shiraia sp. S9 and explored the bacterial elicitation on fungal PQ production. Results A bacterium Pseudomonas fulva SB1 isolated from the fruiting body was found to stimulate the production of fungal PQs including hypocrellins A, C (HA and HC), and elsinochromes A–C (EA, EB and EC). After 2 days of co-cultures, Shiraia mycelium cultures presented the highest production of HA (325.87 mg/L), about 3.20-fold of that in axenic culture. The co-culture resulted in the induction of fungal conidiation and the formation of more compact fungal pellets. Furthermore, the bacterial treatment up-regulated the expression of polyketide synthase gene (PKS), and activated transporter genes of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) and major facilitator superfamily transporter (MFS) for PQ exudation. Conclusions We have established a bacterial co-culture with a host Shiraia fungus to induce PQ biosynthesis. Our results provide a basis for understanding bacterial–fungal interaction in fruiting bodies and a practical co-culture process to enhance PQ production for photodynamic therapy medicine. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12934-019-1170-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Jun Ma
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Li Ping Zheng
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Jian Wen Wang
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, China.
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9
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Jiao W, Liu L, Zhou R, Xu M, Xiao D, Xue C. Elsinochrome phytotoxin production and pathogenicity of Elsinoë arachidis isolates in China. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0218391. [PMID: 31194853 PMCID: PMC6564019 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0218391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2019] [Accepted: 06/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Peanut scab caused by Elsinoë arachidis is found throughout China's peanut-growing areas. Elsinochrome produced by E. arachidis is a perylenequinone photosensitive mycotoxin vital to the pathogenic process of the pathogen. In this study, the complex mechanism underlying the regulation of elsinochrome biosynthesis by E. arachidis was investigated based on various nutritional and environmental factors. The initiation of elsinochrome biosynthesis depends on light. E. arachidis produced substantially more quantities of elsinochrome when grown on a semi-synthetic medium (PDA) than when grown on synthetic media with defined ingredients in the presence of light. Elsinochrome accumulation decreased when adjusted with either citrate or phosphate buffers and changing pH suppressed the radical growth. At temperatures ranging from 10°C to 25°C, the production of elsinochrome increased, peaking at 28°C, and it decreased slightly at 30°C. 63 field-collected isolates from China were assessed for the level of elsinochrome production, and pathogenicity analysis was conducted by selecting 12 strains from each 3 of the 4 groups with different levels of elsinochrome production. A direct correlation was observed between elsinochrome production and pathogenicity among the isolates. The results showed elsinochrome biosynthesis to be controlled by E. arachidis and showed elsinochrome to be a vital virulence factor of E. arachidis, required for disease severity.
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Affiliation(s)
- WenLi Jiao
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Lu Liu
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - RuJun Zhou
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
- * E-mail:
| | - MengXue Xu
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Di Xiao
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Caiyun Xue
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
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10
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Fazio AT, Adler MT, Parnmen S, Lücking R, Maier MS. Production of the bioactive pigment elsinochrome A by a cultured mycobiont strain of the lichen Graphis elongata. Mycol Prog 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s11557-017-1374-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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11
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Chooi Y, Zhang G, Hu J, Muria‐Gonzalez MJ, Tran PN, Pettitt A, Maier AG, Barrow RA, Solomon PS. Functional genomics‐guided discovery of a light‐activated phytotoxin in the wheat pathogen
Parastagonospora nodorum
via pathway activation. Environ Microbiol 2017; 19:1975-1986. [DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.13711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2016] [Accepted: 02/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yit‐Heng Chooi
- School of Molecular SciencesUniversity of Western AustraliaPerth WA6009 Australia
- Research School of BiologyAustralian National UniversityCanberra ACT2601 Australia
| | - Guozhi Zhang
- Research School of BiologyAustralian National UniversityCanberra ACT2601 Australia
| | - Jinyu Hu
- School of Molecular SciencesUniversity of Western AustraliaPerth WA6009 Australia
| | | | - Phuong N. Tran
- Research School of BiologyAustralian National UniversityCanberra ACT2601 Australia
| | - Amber Pettitt
- School of Molecular SciencesUniversity of Western AustraliaPerth WA6009 Australia
| | - Alexander G. Maier
- Research School of BiologyAustralian National UniversityCanberra ACT2601 Australia
| | - Russell A. Barrow
- Research School of ChemistryAustralian National UniversityCanberra ACT2601 Australia
| | - Peter S. Solomon
- Research School of BiologyAustralian National UniversityCanberra ACT2601 Australia
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Daub ME, Herrero S, Chung KR. Reactive oxygen species in plant pathogenesis: the role of perylenequinone photosensitizers. Antioxid Redox Signal 2013; 19:970-89. [PMID: 23259634 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2012.5080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play multiple roles in interactions between plants and microbes, both as host defense mechanisms and as mediators of pathogenic and symbiotic associations. One source of ROS in these interactions are photoactivated, ROS-generating perylenequinone pigments produced via polyketide metabolic pathways in plant-associated fungi. These natural products, including cercosporin, elsinochromes, hypocrellins, and calphostin C, are being utilized as medicinal agents, enzyme inhibitors, and in tumor therapy, but in nature, they play a role in the establishment of pathogenic associations between fungi and their plant hosts. RECENT ADVANCES Photoactivated perylenequinones are photosensitizers that use light energy to form singlet oxygen (¹O₂) and free radical oxygen species which damage cellular components based on localization of the perylenequinone molecule. Production of perylenequinones during infection commonly results in lipid peroxidation and membrane damage, leading to leakage of nutrients from cells into the intercellular spaces colonized by the pathogen. Perylenequinones show almost universal toxicity against organisms, including plants, mice, bacteria, and most fungi. The producing fungi are resistant, however, and serve as models for understanding resistance mechanisms. CRITICAL ISSUES Studies of resistance mechanisms by perylenequinone-producing fungi such as Cercospora species are leading to an understanding of cellular resistance to ¹O₂ and oxidative stress. Recent studies show commonalities between resistance mechanisms in these fungi with extensive studies of ¹O₂ and oxidative stress responses in photosynthetic organisms. FUTURE DIRECTIONS Such studies hold promise both for improved medical use and for engineering crop plants for disease resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret E Daub
- Department of Plant Biology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA.
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Andolfi A, Cimmino A, Villegas-Fernández AM, Tuzi A, Santini A, Melck D, Rubiales D, Evidente A. Lentisone, a new phytotoxic anthraquinone produced by Ascochyta lentis, the causal agent of Ascochyta blight in Lens culinaris. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2013; 61:7301-8. [PMID: 23837870 DOI: 10.1021/jf4026663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
An aggressive isolate of Ascochyta lentis obtained from lentil (Lens culinaris L.) produced various metabolites in vitro. The metabolites were isolated from the culture filtrates and characterized by spectroscopic, chemical, and optical methods. A new phytotoxic anthraquinone, named lentisone, was isolated and characterized as (1S*,2S*,3S*)-1,2,3,8-tetrahydroxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-6-methylanthraquinone together with the well-known pachybasin (1-hydroxy-3-methylanthraquinone), tyrosol, and pseurotin A. Lentisone, tyrosol, and pseurotin A were phytotoxic to lentil, with lentisone the most toxic of all. The toxicity of these compounds is light-dependent. Finally, lentisone was also found to be phytotoxic to chickpea, pea, and faba bean, with toxicity in the latter higher than in any other tested legume, including lentil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Andolfi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università di Napoli Federico II, Complesso Universitario Monte Sant'Angelo, Napoli, Italy
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Stergiopoulos I, Collemare J, Mehrabi R, De Wit PJGM. Phytotoxic secondary metabolites and peptides produced by plant pathogenic Dothideomycete fungi. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2012; 37:67-93. [PMID: 22931103 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2012.00349.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2012] [Revised: 07/01/2012] [Accepted: 07/19/2012] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Many necrotrophic plant pathogenic fungi belonging to the class of Dothideomycetes produce phytotoxic metabolites and peptides that are usually required for pathogenicity. Phytotoxins that affect a broad range of plant species are known as non-host-specific toxins (non-HSTs), whereas HSTs affect only a particular plant species or more often genotypes of that species. For pathogens producing HSTs, pathogenicity and host specificity are largely defined by the ability to produce the toxin, while plant susceptibility is dependent on the presence of the toxin target. Non-HSTs are not the main determinants of pathogenicity but contribute to virulence of the producing pathogen. Dothideomycetes are remarkable for the production of toxins, particularly HSTs because they are the only fungal species known so far to produce them. The synthesis, regulation, and mechanisms of action of the most important HSTs and non-HSTs will be discussed. Studies on the mode of action of HSTs have highlighted the induction of programed cell death (PCD) as an important mechanism. We discuss HST-induced PCD and the plant hypersensitive response upon recognition of avirulence factors that share common pathways. In this respect, although nucleotide-binding-site-leucine-rich repeat types of resistance proteins mediate resistance against biotrophs, they can also contribute to susceptibility toward necrotrophs.
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Chung KR. Elsinoë fawcettii and Elsinoë australis: the fungal pathogens causing citrus scab. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2011; 12:123-35. [PMID: 21199563 PMCID: PMC6640467 DOI: 10.1111/j.1364-3703.2010.00663.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Elsinoë fawcettii and E. australis are important pathogens of citrus. Both species are known to produce red or orange pigments, called elsinochrome. Elsinochrome is a nonhost-selective phytotoxin and is required for full fungal virulence and lesion formation. This article discusses the taxonomy, epidemiology, genetics and pathology of the pathogens. It also provides a perspective on the cellular toxicity, biosynthetic regulation and pathological role of elsinochrome phytotoxin. TAXONOMY Elsinoë fawcettii (anamorph: Sphaceloma fawcettii) and E. australis (anamorph: S. australis) are classified in the Phylum Ascomycota, Class Dothideomycetes, Order Myriangiales and Family Elsinoaceae. HOST RANGE Elsinoë fawcettii causes citrus scab (formerly sour orange scab and common scab) on various species and hybrids in the Rutaceae family worldwide, whereas E. australis causes sweet orange scab, primarily on sweet orange and some mandarins, and has a limited geographical distribution. DISEASE SYMPTOMS Citrus tissues infested with Elsinoë often display erumpent scab pustules with a warty appearance. TOXIN PRODUCTION: Elsinochrome and many perylenequinone-containing phytotoxins of fungal origin are grouped as photosensitizing compounds that are able to absorb light energy, react with oxygen molecules and produce reactive oxygen species, such as superoxide and singlet oxygen. Elsinochrome has been documented to cause peroxidation of cell membranes and to induce rapid electrolyte leakage from citrus tissues. Elsinochrome biosynthesis and conidiation are coordinately regulated in E. fawcettii, and the environmental and physiological inducers commonly involved in both processes have begun to be elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuang-Ren Chung
- Citrus Research and Education Center, and Department of Plant Pathology, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS), University of Florida, 700 Experiment Station Road, Lake Alfred, FL 33850, USA.
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Yang SL, Chung KR. Transcriptional regulation of elsinochrome phytotoxin biosynthesis by an EfSTE12 activator in the citrus scab pathogen Elsinoë fawcettii. Fungal Biol 2009; 114:64-73. [PMID: 20965063 DOI: 10.1016/j.mycres.2009.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2009] [Revised: 10/01/2009] [Accepted: 10/26/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Elsinochrome (ESC), produced by the citrus pathogen Elsinoë fawcettii, is a nonhost-selective, light-dependent, polyketide-derived phytotoxin and plays a crucial role for full virulence. The biosynthesis of ESC is regulated by a wide array of environmental stimuli and is primarily governed by the pathway-specific TSF1 transcription regulator whose coding gene is clustered with the EfPKS1 gene encoding a polyketide synthase and other biosynthetic genes in the genome. In this report, an EfSTE12 gene, encoding a polypeptide resembling the yeast STE12 transcription factor, was cloned and characterized to play a role, independent of TSF1, for ESC production in E. fawcettii. The loss-of-function mutant, specifically disrupted at the EfSTE12 locus, displays reduced ESC accumulation, elevated activities for pectinase and proteolytic enzymes but unaltered in conidiation and fungal pathogenicity. Impairment of the EfSTE12 gene decreased the abundance of the EfPKS1 but not the TSF1 gene transcript. In contrast, expression of the EfSTE12 gene appears normal in the EfPKS1 or TSF1 disruptants. The results indicate that EfSTE12 is functioning for ESC biosynthesis by directly activating the biosynthetic genes without regulating the pathway-specific TSF1 regulator. The defective phenotypes were fully reverted when a functional copy of EfSTE12 was re-introduced into the disrupted mutant. A hypothetical model underlying intertwined regulatory pathways via TSF1, EfSTE12, and other potent transcriptional activators led to the ESC biosynthesis and conidiation is described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siwy Ling Yang
- Citrus Research and Education Center, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS), University of Florida, 700 Experiment Station Road, Lake Alfred, Florida 33850, USA
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Chung KR, Liao HL. Determination of a transcriptional regulator-like gene involved in biosynthesis of elsinochrome phytotoxin by the citrus scab fungus, Elsinoë fawcettii. Microbiology (Reading) 2008; 154:3556-3566. [DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.2008/019414-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kuang-Ren Chung
- Citrus Research and Education Center, and Department of Plant Pathology, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS), University of Florida, 700 Experiment Station Road, Lake Alfred, FL 33850, USA
| | - Hui-Ling Liao
- Citrus Research and Education Center, and Department of Plant Pathology, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS), University of Florida, 700 Experiment Station Road, Lake Alfred, FL 33850, USA
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Bömke C, Rojas MC, Gong F, Hedden P, Tudzynski B. Isolation and characterization of the gibberellin biosynthetic gene cluster in Sphaceloma manihoticola. Appl Environ Microbiol 2008; 74:5325-39. [PMID: 18567680 PMCID: PMC2546651 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00694-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2008] [Accepted: 06/14/2008] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Gibberellins (GAs) are tetracyclic diterpenoid phytohormones that were first identified as secondary metabolites of the fungus Fusarium fujikuroi (teleomorph, Gibberella fujikuroi). GAs were also found in the cassava pathogen Sphaceloma manihoticola, but the spectrum of GAs differed from that in F. fujikuroi. In contrast to F. fujikuroi, the GA biosynthetic pathway has not been studied in detail in S. manihoticola, and none of the GA biosynthetic genes have been cloned from the species. Here, we present the identification of the GA biosynthetic gene cluster from S. manihoticola consisting of five genes encoding a bifunctional ent-copalyl/ent-kaurene synthase (CPS/KS), a pathway-specific geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (GGS2), and three cytochrome P450 monooxygenases. The functions of all of the genes were analyzed either by a gene replacement approach or by complementing the corresponding F. fujikuroi mutants. The cluster organization and gene functions are similar to those in F. fujikuroi. However, the two border genes in the Fusarium cluster encoding the GA(4) desaturase (DES) and the 13-hydroxylase (P450-3) are absent in the S. manihoticola GA gene cluster, consistent with the spectrum of GAs produced by this fungus. The close similarity between the two GA gene clusters, the identical gene functions, and the conserved intron positions suggest a common evolutionary origin despite the distant relatedness of the two fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christiane Bömke
- Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Institut für Botanik, Schlossgarten 3, 48149 Münster, Germany
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