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Bielčik M, Schlägel UE, Schäfer M, Aguilar-Trigueros CA, Lakovic M, Sosa-Hernández MA, Hammer EC, Jeltsch F, Rillig MC. Aligning spatial ecological theory with the study of clonal organisms: the case of fungal coexistence. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024. [PMID: 39073180 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Revised: 06/28/2024] [Accepted: 07/02/2024] [Indexed: 07/30/2024]
Abstract
Established ecological theory has focused on unitary organisms, and thus its concepts have matured into a form that often hinders rather than facilitates the ecological study of modular organisms. Here, we use the example of filamentous fungi to develop concepts that enable integration of non-unitary (modular) organisms into the established community ecology theory, with particular focus on its spatial aspects. In doing so, we provide a link between fungal community ecology and modern coexistence theory (MCT). We first show how community processes and predictions made by MCT can be used to define meaningful scales in fungal ecology. This leads to the novel concept of the unit of community interactions (UCI), a promising conceptual tool for applying MCT to communities of modular organisms with indeterminate clonal growth and hierarchical individuality. We outline plausible coexistence mechanisms structuring fungal communities, and show at what spatial scales and in what habitats they are most likely to act. We end by describing challenges and opportunities for empirical and theoretical research in fungal competitive coexistence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miloš Bielčik
- Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, Altensteinstr. 6, Berlin, 14195, Germany
- Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research (BBIB), Altensteinstr.34, Berlin, 14195, Germany
- Microbial Biogeochemistry, Research Area Landscape Functioning, Leibniz Center for Agricultural Landscape Research (ZALF), Eberswalder Str.84, Müncheberg, 15374, Germany
| | - Ulrike E Schlägel
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Am Mühlenberg 3, House 60, Potsdam-Golm, 14476, Germany
| | - Merlin Schäfer
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Am Mühlenberg 3, House 60, Potsdam-Golm, 14476, Germany
- Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, Alte Messe 6, Leipzig, 04103, Germany
| | - Carlos A Aguilar-Trigueros
- Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, Altensteinstr. 6, Berlin, 14195, Germany
- Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research (BBIB), Altensteinstr.34, Berlin, 14195, Germany
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Hawkesbury Campus, Building R2, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, New South Wales, 2751, Australia
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, Seminaarinkatu 15, Jyväskylä, 40014, Finland
| | - Milica Lakovic
- Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, Altensteinstr. 6, Berlin, 14195, Germany
- Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research (BBIB), Altensteinstr.34, Berlin, 14195, Germany
| | - Moisés A Sosa-Hernández
- Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, Altensteinstr. 6, Berlin, 14195, Germany
- Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research (BBIB), Altensteinstr.34, Berlin, 14195, Germany
| | - Edith C Hammer
- Department of Biology, Microbial Ecology, Lund University, Ekologihuset, Sölvegatan 37, Lund, 22362, Sweden
| | - Florian Jeltsch
- Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research (BBIB), Altensteinstr.34, Berlin, 14195, Germany
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Am Mühlenberg 3, House 60, Potsdam-Golm, 14476, Germany
| | - Matthias C Rillig
- Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, Altensteinstr. 6, Berlin, 14195, Germany
- Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research (BBIB), Altensteinstr.34, Berlin, 14195, Germany
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Hawkins HJ, Cargill RIM, Van Nuland ME, Hagen SC, Field KJ, Sheldrake M, Soudzilovskaia NA, Kiers ET. Mycorrhizal mycelium as a global carbon pool. Curr Biol 2023; 33:R560-R573. [PMID: 37279689 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.02.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
For more than 400 million years, mycorrhizal fungi and plants have formed partnerships that are crucial to the emergence and functioning of global ecosystems. The importance of these symbiotic fungi for plant nutrition is well established. However, the role of mycorrhizal fungi in transporting carbon into soil systems on a global scale remains under-explored. This is surprising given that ∼75% of terrestrial carbon is stored belowground and mycorrhizal fungi are stationed at a key entry point of carbon into soil food webs. Here, we analyze nearly 200 datasets to provide the first global quantitative estimates of carbon allocation from plants to the mycelium of mycorrhizal fungi. We estimate that global plant communities allocate 3.93 Gt CO2e per year to arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, 9.07 Gt CO2e per year to ectomycorrhizal fungi, and 0.12 Gt CO2e per year to ericoid mycorrhizal fungi. Based on this estimate, 13.12 Gt of CO2e fixed by terrestrial plants is, at least temporarily, allocated to the underground mycelium of mycorrhizal fungi per year, equating to ∼36% of current annual CO2 emissions from fossil fuels. We explore the mechanisms by which mycorrhizal fungi affect soil carbon pools and identify approaches to increase our understanding of global carbon fluxes via plant-fungal pathways. Our estimates, although based on the best available evidence, are imperfect and should be interpreted with caution. Nonetheless, our estimations are conservative, and we argue that this work confirms the significant contribution made by mycorrhizal associations to global carbon dynamics. Our findings should motivate their inclusion both within global climate and carbon cycling models, and within conservation policy and practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heidi-Jayne Hawkins
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7701, South Africa; Conservation International, Forrest House, Belmont Park, Cape Town 7700, South Africa.
| | - Rachael I M Cargill
- Amsterdam Institute for Life and Environment, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1085, NL-1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands; AMOLF, Science Park 102, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Michael E Van Nuland
- Amsterdam Institute for Life and Environment, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1085, NL-1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Society for the Protection of Underground Networks, SPUN, 3500 South DuPont Highway, Dover, DE 19901, USA
| | | | - Katie J Field
- Plants, Photosynthesis and Soil, School of Biosciences, The University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
| | - Merlin Sheldrake
- Amsterdam Institute for Life and Environment, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1085, NL-1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Society for the Protection of Underground Networks, SPUN, 3500 South DuPont Highway, Dover, DE 19901, USA
| | | | - E Toby Kiers
- Amsterdam Institute for Life and Environment, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1085, NL-1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Society for the Protection of Underground Networks, SPUN, 3500 South DuPont Highway, Dover, DE 19901, USA
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Horimai Y, Misawa H, Suzuki K, Fukuda M, Furukawa H, Masuno K, Yamanaka T, Yamada A. Sibling spore isolates of Tricholoma matsutake vary significantly in their ectomycorrhizal colonization abilities on pine hosts in vitro and form multiple intimate associations in single ectomycorrhizal roots. FUNGAL ECOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.funeco.2019.100874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Contribution of root-associated microbial communities on soil quality of Oak and Pine forests in the Himalayan ecosystem. Trop Ecol 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s42965-019-00031-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Nehls U, Plassard C. Nitrogen and phosphate metabolism in ectomycorrhizas. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2018; 220:1047-1058. [PMID: 29888395 DOI: 10.1111/nph.15257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2018] [Accepted: 05/01/2018] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
1047 I. Introduction 1047 II. Mobilization of soil N/P by ECM fungi 1048 III. N/P uptake 1048 IV. N/P assimilation 1049 V. N/P storage and remobilization 1049 VI. Hyphal N/P efflux at the plant-fungus interface 1052 VII. Conclusion and research needs 1054 Acknowledgements 1055 References 1055 SUMMARY: Nutrient homeostasis is essential for fungal cells and thus tightly adapted to the local demand in a mycelium with hyphal specialization. Based on selected ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungal models, we outlined current concepts of nitrogen and phosphate nutrition and their limitations, and included knowledge from Baker's yeast when major gaps had to be filled. We covered the entire pathway from nutrient mobilization, import and local storage, distribution within the mycelium and export at the plant-fungus interface. Even when nutrient import and assimilation were broad issues for ECM fungi, we focused mainly on nitrate and organic phosphorus uptake, as other nitrogen/phosphorus (N/P) sources have been covered by recent reviews. Vacuolar N/P storage and mobilization represented another focus point of this review. Vacuoles are integrated into cellular homeostasis and central for an ECM mycelium at two locations: soil-growing hyphae and hyphae of the plant-fungus interface. Vacuoles are also involved in long-distance transport. We further discussed potential mechanisms of bidirectional long-distance nutrient transport (distances from millimetres to metres). A final focus of the review was N/P export at the plant-fungus interface, where we compared potential efflux mechanisms and pathways, and discussed their prerequisites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uwe Nehls
- Botany, University of Bremen, Bremen, 28359, Germany
| | - Claude Plassard
- Eco & Sols, Université de Montpellier, INRA, CIRAD, IRD, Montpellier SupAgro, Montpellier, 34060, France
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Pathway and sink activity for translocation of 14C absorbed as amino acids in the Pisolithus extraradical mycelium of ectomycorrhizal Pinus thunbergii seedlings. MYCOSCIENCE 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.myc.2016.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Moeller HV, Dickie IA, Peltzer DA, Fukami T. Hierarchical neighbor effects on mycorrhizal community structure and function. Ecol Evol 2016; 6:5416-30. [PMID: 27551393 PMCID: PMC4984514 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.2299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2016] [Revised: 06/05/2016] [Accepted: 06/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Theory predicts that neighboring communities can shape one another's composition and function, for example, through the exchange of member species. However, empirical tests of the directionality and strength of these effects are rare. We determined the effects of neighboring communities on one another through experimental manipulation of a plant-fungal model system. We first established distinct ectomycorrhizal fungal communities on Douglas-fir seedlings that were initially grown in three soil environments. We then transplanted seedlings and mycorrhizal communities in a fully factorial experiment designed to quantify the direction and strength of neighbor effects by focusing on changes in fungal community species composition and implications for seedling growth (a proxy for community function). We found that neighbor effects on the composition and function of adjacent communities follow a dominance hierarchy. Specifically, mycorrhizal communities established from soils collected in Douglas-fir plantations were both the least sensitive to neighbor effects, and exerted the strongest influence on their neighbors by driving convergence in neighbor community composition and increasing neighbor seedling vigor. These results demonstrate that asymmetric neighbor effects mediated by ecological history can determine both community composition and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly V. Moeller
- Department of BiologyStanford UniversityStanfordCalifornia94305
- EcologyEvolution & Marine BiologyUniversity of CaliforniaSanta BarbaraCalifornia93106
- Present address: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution266 Woods Hole Road, Mail Stop 52Woods HoleMassachusetts02543
| | - Ian A. Dickie
- Bio‐Protection Research CentreLincoln UniversityLincoln7640New Zealand
| | | | - Tadashi Fukami
- Department of BiologyStanford UniversityStanfordCalifornia94305
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Teramoto M, Wu B, Hogetsu T. Pathway and sink activity for photosynthate translocation in Pisolithus extraradical mycelium of ectomycorrhizal Pinus thunbergii seedlings. MYCORRHIZA 2016; 26:453-64. [PMID: 26861479 DOI: 10.1007/s00572-016-0684-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2015] [Accepted: 01/29/2016] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to identify the pathway and sink activity of photosynthate translocation in the extraradical mycelium (ERM) of a Pisolithus isolate. We labelled ectomycorrhizal (ECM) Pinus thunbergii seedlings with (14)CO2 and followed (14)C distribution within the ERM by autoradiography. (14)C photosynthate translocation in the ERM resulted in (14)C distribution in rhizomorphs throughout the ERM, with (14)C accumulation at the front. When most radial mycelial connections between ECM root tips and the ERM front were cut, the whole allocation of (14)C photosynthates to the ERM was reduced. However, the overall pattern of (14)C distribution in the ERM was maintained even in regions immediately above and below the cut, with no local (14)C depletion or accumulation. We inferred from this result that every portion in the ERM has a significant sink activity and a definite sink capacity for photosynthates and that photosynthates detour the cut and reach throughout the ERM by translocation in every direction. Next, we prepared paired ECM seedlings, ERMs of which had been connected with each other by hyphal fusion, alongside, labelled the left seedling with (14)CO2, and shaded none, one or both of them. (14)C photosynthates were acropetally and basipetally translocated from the left ERM to ECM root tips of the right seedling through rhizomorphs in the left and right ERMs, respectively. With the left seedling illuminated, (14)C translocation from the left to the right ERM increased by shading the right seedling. This result suggests that reduced photosynthate transfer from the host to its ERM increased sink activity of the ERM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Munemasa Teramoto
- Department of Forest Science, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Yayoi 1-1-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8657, Japan.
- Present address: Center for Global Environmental Research, National Institute for Environmental Studies, Onogawa 16-2, Tsukuba, 305-8506, Japan.
| | - Bingyun Wu
- Department of Forest Science, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Yayoi 1-1-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8657, Japan
| | - Taizo Hogetsu
- Department of Forest Science, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Yayoi 1-1-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8657, Japan
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Yoshida N, Son JA, Matsushita N, Iwamoto K, Hogetsu T. Fine-scale distribution of ectomycorrhizal fungi colonizing Tsuga diversifolia seedlings growing on rocks in a subalpine Abies veitchii forest. MYCORRHIZA 2014; 24:247-257. [PMID: 24212400 DOI: 10.1007/s00572-013-0535-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2013] [Accepted: 10/13/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Numerous species of ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi coexist under the forest floor. To explore the mechanisms of coexistence, we investigated the fine-scale distribution of ECM fungal species colonizing root tips in the root system of Tsuga diversifolia seedlings in a subalpine forest. ECM root tips of three seedlings growing on the flat top surface of rocks were sampled after recording their positions in the root system. After the root tips were grouped by terminal-restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP) analysis of ITS rDNA, the fungal species representing each T-RFLP group were identified using DNA sequencing. Based on the fungal species identification, the distribution of root tips colonized by each ECM fungus was mapped. Significant clustering of root tips was estimated for each fungal species by comparing actual and randomly simulated distributions. In total, the three seedlings were colonized by 40 ECM fungal species. The composition of colonizing fungal species was quite different among the seedlings. Twelve of the 15 major ECM fungal species clustered significantly within a few centimeters. Some clusters overlapped or intermingled, while others were unique. Areas with high fungal species diversity were also identified in the root system. In this report, the mechanisms underlying generation of these ECM root tip clusters in the root system are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naohiro Yoshida
- Graduate school of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8657, Japan,
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Toju H, Sato H, Tanabe AS. Diversity and spatial structure of belowground plant-fungal symbiosis in a mixed subtropical forest of ectomycorrhizal and arbuscular mycorrhizal plants. PLoS One 2014; 9:e86566. [PMID: 24489745 PMCID: PMC3904951 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0086566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2013] [Accepted: 12/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant-mycorrhizal fungal interactions are ubiquitous in forest ecosystems. While ectomycorrhizal plants and their fungi generally dominate temperate forests, arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis is common in the tropics. In subtropical regions, however, ectomycorrhizal and arbuscular mycorrhizal plants co-occur at comparable abundances in single forests, presumably generating complex community structures of root-associated fungi. To reveal root-associated fungal community structure in a mixed forest of ectomycorrhizal and arbuscular mycorrhizal plants, we conducted a massively-parallel pyrosequencing analysis, targeting fungi in the roots of 36 plant species that co-occur in a subtropical forest. In total, 580 fungal operational taxonomic units were detected, of which 132 and 58 were probably ectomycorrhizal and arbuscular mycorrhizal, respectively. As expected, the composition of fungal symbionts differed between fagaceous (ectomycorrhizal) and non-fagaceous (possibly arbuscular mycorrhizal) plants. However, non-fagaceous plants were associated with not only arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi but also several clades of ectomycorrhizal (e.g., Russula) and root-endophytic ascomycete fungi. Many of the ectomycorrhizal and root-endophytic fungi were detected from both fagaceous and non-fagaceous plants in the community. Interestingly, ectomycorrhizal and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi were concurrently detected from tiny root fragments of non-fagaceous plants. The plant-fungal associations in the forest were spatially structured, and non-fagaceous plant roots hosted ectomycorrhizal fungi more often in the proximity of ectomycorrhizal plant roots. Overall, this study suggests that belowground plant-fungal symbiosis in subtropical forests is complex in that it includes "non-typical" plant-fungal combinations (e.g., ectomycorrhizal fungi on possibly arbuscular mycorrhizal plants) that do not fall within the conventional classification of mycorrhizal symbioses, and in that associations with multiple functional (or phylogenetic) groups of fungi are ubiquitous among plants. Moreover, ectomycorrhizal fungal symbionts of fagaceous plants may "invade" the roots of neighboring non-fagaceous plants, potentially influencing the interactions between non-fagaceous plants and their arbuscular-mycorrhizal fungal symbionts at a fine spatial scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hirokazu Toju
- Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Sakyo, Kyoto, Japan
- Graduate School of Human and Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Sakyo, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Hirotoshi Sato
- Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Sakyo, Kyoto, Japan
- Graduate School of Human and Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Sakyo, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Akifumi S. Tanabe
- Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Sakyo, Kyoto, Japan
- National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, Fisheries Research Agency, Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
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Toju H, Yamamoto S, Sato H, Tanabe AS, Gilbert GS, Kadowaki K. Community composition of root-associated fungi in a Quercus-dominated temperate forest: "codominance" of mycorrhizal and root-endophytic fungi. Ecol Evol 2013; 3:1281-93. [PMID: 23762515 PMCID: PMC3678483 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2013] [Accepted: 03/09/2013] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
In terrestrial ecosystems, plant roots are colonized by various clades of mycorrhizal and endophytic fungi. Focused on the root systems of an oak-dominated temperate forest in Japan, we used 454 pyrosequencing to explore how phylogenetically diverse fungi constitute an ecological community of multiple ecotypes. In total, 345 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) of fungi were found from 159 terminal-root samples from 12 plant species occurring in the forest. Due to the dominance of an oak species (Quercus serrata), diverse ectomycorrhizal clades such as Russula, Lactarius, Cortinarius, Tomentella, Amanita, Boletus, and Cenococcum were observed. Unexpectedly, the root-associated fungal community was dominated by root-endophytic ascomycetes in Helotiales, Chaetothyriales, and Rhytismatales. Overall, 55.3% of root samples were colonized by both the commonly observed ascomycetes and ectomycorrhizal fungi; 75.0% of the root samples of the dominant Q. serrata were so cocolonized. Overall, this study revealed that root-associated fungal communities of oak-dominated temperate forests were dominated not only by ectomycorrhizal fungi but also by diverse root endophytes and that potential ecological interactions between the two ecotypes may be important to understand the complex assembly processes of belowground fungal communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hirokazu Toju
- Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto UniversitySakyo, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan
- Graduate School of Human and Environmental Studies, Kyoto UniversitySakyo, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan
| | - Satoshi Yamamoto
- Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto UniversitySakyo, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan
| | - Hirotoshi Sato
- Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto UniversitySakyo, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan
| | - Akifumi S Tanabe
- Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto UniversitySakyo, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan
- National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, Fisheries Research AgencyFukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-8648, Japan
| | - Gregory S Gilbert
- Environmental Studies Department, University of CaliforniaSanta Cruz, California, 95064
| | - Kohmei Kadowaki
- Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto UniversitySakyo, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan
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