Sex Differences in Response to Marijuana in a Social Setting

Contextual factors associated with subjective effects of cannabis: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Cannabis is consumed in various social and environmental settings, and such contexts may be important predictors of subjective effects. The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to examine the relationship between contextual factors and subjective effects of cannabis.

METHODS

A PRISMA-guided search of MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, Global Health, and Google Scholar yielded 29 studies.

RESULTS

Study type (Ecological Momentary Assessment or Experimental) was a significant predictor of intoxication effects, and experimental studies had a greater pooled effect size (z =.296,95 % CI [.132,.478], p=.004) than Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) studies (z =.071,95 % CI [.011,.130], p =.02). Contextual conditions (environment, social group, expectancy, time of day, day of week) were not significant predictors of cannabis effects.

CONCLUSION

Findings did not point to a significant association between contextual conditions and subjective effects. However, as current literature is methodologically weak, it may be premature to conclude that subjective effects are not shaped by contextual factors. In view of policy and therapeutic implications, replications and study refinements are recommended.

Smoking, stress, and negative affect: correlation, causation, and context across stages of smoking

This transdisciplinary review of the literature addresses the questions, Do stress and negative affect (NA) promote smoking? and Does smoking genuinely relieve stress and NA? Drawing on both human and animal literatures, the authors examine these questions across three developmental stages of smoking--initiation, maintenance, and relapse. Methodological and conceptual distinctions relating to within- and between-subjects levels of analyses are emphasized throughout the review. Potential mechanisms underlying links between stress and NA and smoking are also reviewed. Relative to direct-effect explanations, the authors argue that contextual mediator-moderator approaches hold greater potential for elucidating complex associations between NA and stress and smoking. The authors conclude with recommendations for research initiatives that draw on more sophisticated theories and methodologies.

Effects of smoked marijuana on social interaction in small groups

Twelve adult male research volunteers, in four groups of three subjects each, resided continuously in a residential laboratory for up to 18 days. Subject's behaviors, including social interaction, were continuously recorded. During the first part of the day (1000-1600), subjects remained in their private rooms doing work activities, and during the remainder of the day (1600-2345), they had the option to socialize with the other subjects. Four cigarettes containing active marijuana (1.84%, delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta 9 (THC)), w/w) or placebo were smoked daily: one each prior to the work and social access period, and two during the social access period. When the results were averaged across all groups and individuals, active marijuana significantly increased total daily social interaction time. However, drug effects were a function of the baseline amount of social interaction. The results of these experiments also showed that the pattern of increases in social interaction following smoked active marijuana varied within different groups of individuals.

Experimenter effects in marihuana research: a note of caution

Experimenters, being social interactants in research, can influence subjects' responses to experimental manipulations. Our observations indicate that the personalities of the experimenters are related to the maintenance of their subjects' subjective intoxication in a marihuana experiment. Caution is advised in generalizing from laboratory experiments where such non-drug factors are not considered.

The subjective marijuana experience: great expectations

Participants' expectations of marijuana effects are frequently cited as unmeasured post hoc explanations of variability in response to the drug, or of the data which fail to conform to the experimenters' expectations of the drug's effects. Twenty-four male volunteers, experienced in the use of marijuana, participated in research involving the administration of coltsfoot, placebo, and marijauna to investigate whether expectancy of marijuana effects could be measured and related to observed effects. Data for the Expectancy Questionnaire were derived from the Marihuana Effects Questions filled out when potential participants volunteered for the study and were compared to the High Questionnaire filled out after drug administration sessions. Expectancy was shown to have a quantifiable effect on the drug experience (both placebo and marijuana), even in an experimental situation. Prior frequency of occurrence of specific effects was positively related to both the intensity and duration of the effects in the laboratory. The data are discussed in terms of the learned components in getting stoned, and in terms of the social nature of cannabis intoxication.

Contributions of individual differences to subjective intoxication

Our previous research has demonstrated that the statistical relationships between personality and drug history are not particularly impressive, but that background, drug history and expectancy are related to specific aspects of the marihuana intoxication experience. The present research explored the relationships between individual difference variables (personality, background, and drug history) and subjective level of intoxication on coltsfoot, placebo, and marihuana in 24 male volunteers. Pearson product-moment correlations were strongest on coltsfoot and placebo. Pro-social dimensions of personality and experience with LSD were most strongly related to subjective level of intoxication.

Personality and non-medical use of drugs

A plethora of studies have indicated marihuana users differ from nonusers on a variety of personality dimensions. The direction of these differences and their interpretation vary from report to report depending on the samples, the measures, and the orientation of both authors and readers. The present study examined the relationships between extent of non-medical use of drugs and Personality Research Form (Jackson, 1974) scores of 24 males. Little evidence was found that would justify the acceptance of either a positive or a negative stereotype of a person who participates in non-medical drug use.