Mapping Gender

Is there a g-factor of genderedness? Using a continuous measure of genderedness to assess sex differences in personality, values, cognitive ability, school grades, and educational track

Some of the most persistently recurring research questions concern sex differences. Despite much progress, limited research has thus far been undertaken to investigate whether there is one general construct of genderedness that runs through various domains of human individuality. In order to determine whether being gender typical in one way goes together with being gender typical also in other ways, we investigated whether 16-year-old Finnish girls and boys ( N = 4106) differ in their personality, values, cognitive abilities, academic achievement, and educational track. To do this, we updated the prediction-focused gender diagnosticity approach by methods of cross-validation for more accurate estimation. The preregistered analysis shows that sex differences vary across domains ( Ds = 0.15–1.48), that fine-grained measures, such as grade profiles, can be accurate in predicting sex (77.5%), whereas some summary indices, such as general cognitive ability, do not perform above-chance (52.4%), and that the genderedness correlations, despite all being positive, are too weak (average partial correlation, r´ = .09, range .03–.34) to support a general factor of genderedness. Our more exploratory analyses show that more focus on gender typicality could offer important insights into the role of gender in shaping people’s lives.

Assessing the Spectrum of Gender Norms Perceptions in Early Adolescence: A Cross-Cultural Analysis of the Global Early Adolescent Study

PURPOSE

There is increasing recognition that gender norms affect adolescent health and well-being. This study explores the consistency of adolescents' gender norm perceptions across different dimensions (roles, traits, relations) and describes how the patterns of these perceptions vary across four culturally different settings.

METHODS

The study includes 8,977 adolescents aged 10-14 years from Kinshasa, Shanghai, Cuenca, and Indonesia. Three gender norm scales were examined: sexual double standard, gender stereotypical traits, and stereotypical roles. We investigated patterns of gender norms across dimensions (roles, traits, and relations) and compared results between sites. We also examined how adolescents' individual responses across the scales compared with average responses in their site, to assess the consistency of their gender views.

RESULTS

Patterns of gender norms varied across sites, reflected in different levels of endorsement of each gender norms scale, from least equal in Kinshasa to most equal in Shanghai, while greater variation of perspectives across gender dimensions was noted in Cuenca and Indonesia. Moving from a societal to an individual perspective, most adolescents in each site (62%-67%) held both more progressive and less progressive views compared with their average peer depending on the gender dimension.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study demonstrates the coexistence of multiple gender worldviews that are assessed and enacted as per adolescents' experiences and social context. Accounting for such complexities is essential for gender-transformative programs, as shifting gender attitudes in one area does not necessarily translate in more gender equitable views across other spheres of life.

Interpersonal Decentering and Interpersonal Problems: Testing the Multi-Method Utility of Person-Situation Interactions in Thematic Apperception Tests

Mature interpersonal decentering is a form of social cognitive role-taking involving reflective thought about one's interpersonal relationships. Previous research examining main effects for persons, card situation content, story content, and person-card interactions found more mature decentering in stories about heterosexual romantic-pull Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) cards (HRC) as compared with stories about nonromantic cards (NRC). To see whether differences in means corresponded to differential criterion validity, this multi-method study examined Inventory of Interpersonal Problems circumplex (IIP-C) scores associated with young adults' decentering maturity and deficits, comparing correlations with IIP-C scores of decentering scores calculated from HRC versus NRC. Similarly, to test the effect of story content, IIP-C scores were correlated with decentering scores calculated from stories having romantic versus nonromantic story content. Using circumplex statistical tests, decentering deficits were associated with domineering/vindictive interpersonal problems, and mature decentering with nonassertive/exploitable problems. Men who reported more exploitable problems decentered more maturely across all situations. Women who decentered more maturely in response to HRC reported more socially avoidant problems, whereas those who decentered more maturely to NRC reported more exploitable problems. Results for romantic versus nonromantic story content were largely uninterpretable (did not meet circumplexity assumption). Findings might assist clinicians' card selection.

Explaining the Voluntary Compliance to COVID-19 Measures: An Extrapolation on the Gender Perspective

The discourse of gender amidst the COVID-19 pandemic had been a big fuss. Amongst the discussions is the gender-related responses to COVID-19 that generally assume females to better respond to COVID-19 than males. Despite the converging assumptions, previous studies tend to conceptualize gender as binary biological sex, and consequently, there is little understanding of the gender-COVID-19 measures compliance relationship. By taking gender as a multidimensional perspective, this research aims to examine the relationship between sex, gender psychology, and gender-role with voluntary compliance to COVID-19 measures as well as the moderating role of situational aspects that can activate individuals' responses toward COVID-19. A survey had been conducted in Indonesia, as Indonesia represents a country with relaxed COVID-19 restrictions making voluntary compliance is deemed important. Consistent with our predictions and previous studies, females tend to better comply with COVID-19 when gender is treated as dichotomous sex. However, a closer look at the gender dimensions revealed that gender psychology (feminine vs masculine) and gender-role (traditional vs egalitarian) provide a better explanation of the specific compliance behaviour toward COVID-19 measures. Interestingly, although situational pathogen avoidance (SPA) directly leads to adherence to several compliance behaviours, it does not moderate the four compliance behaviour of COVID-19 measures. Theoretical and practical contributions are further discussed.

Gender Segregation and Its Correlates at Midlife and Beyond

We investigated gender segregation and its correlates in the friendships of U.S. adults aged 50-74 years (177 women; 52 men). Gender segregation existed in our midlife sample such that 74% of friend nominations were same gender. Similar to research on other periods of the adult lifespan we found that for women, gender segregation was negatively correlated with competitive activity orientation, positively correlated with beliefs about same-gender peers' communicative responsiveness and negatively correlated with beliefs about other-gender peers' communicative responsiveness. Women's gender segregation was also negatively correlated with masculinity and positively correlated with gender-reference group identity. For men, gender segregation was negatively correlated with beliefs about other-gender peers' communicative responsiveness and positively correlated with gender-reference group identity. Our results suggest that gender segregation continues to exist at midlife and that there is some continuity in the correlates of gender segregation across adulthood.

Beyond Simple Differences: Moderators of Gender Differences in Heteronormativity

Heteronormativity is a culturally embedded system defining acceptable identities and behaviors in romantic relationships. Recent literature has suggested that heteronormativity is strongly associated with political attitudes, personality characteristics such as tolerance of ambiguity, and key demographic variables such as gender and sexual orientation. However, interactions between gender and other factors have not been thoroughly explored as predictors of heteronormative attitude and beliefs. The current study (N = 306) expands the understanding of predictors of heteronormativity, particularly as they interact with gender. In the current study, higher education was associated with lower heteronormativity among women, but not among men, and expressiveness was associated with lower heteronormativity among men, but not among women. Finally, a 3-way interaction showed that the relationship between education and heteronormativity for men (but not women) depended on trait expressiveness. Future studies are recommended, including observation of changes in heteronormativity over time and exploration of mechanisms that reinforce or reduce heteronormativity.

The Relations Among Feminist Identity Development, Gender-Role Orientation, and Psychological Well-Being in Women

This study examined relations between feminist identity development, gender-role orientation, and psychological well-being in 244 women of varying ages and backgrounds. As hypothesized, both feminist identity development and gender-role orientation contributed independently to the explanation of variance in psychological well-being. Instrumentality, expressiveness, and a more developed feminist identity were all related positively to psychological well-being. In addition, instrumentality and a more developed feminist identity were correlated positively. Implications of these findings as well as limitations and future directions are discussed.

Sex Differences in the Presentation of Chronic Low Back Pain

Sex differences in 351 patients with chronic low back pain were examined. Biological, psychological, and psychosocial factors were considered. Sex differences in adaptive functioning were consistent with traditional gender roles. Significant interactions were found for sex and employment status, and sex and marital status. Retired women reported more pain and less activity than retired men. Retired men reported the least pain of any group. Outdoor work and social activities show opposite within-group patterns for men and women when stratifiedby employment status. Marriage was associated with more household work for women and less for men. The financial and social contexts of employment status and marriage are different for men and women. Results suggest the treatment of women with chronic low back pain requires attention to work in the home and the financial and social context of work outside the home.

On the Content and Structure of the Gender Role Self-Concept: Including Gender-Stereotypical Behaviors in Addition to Traits

The present study introduces a conceptualization of gender role self-concept that implies not only the commonly measured socially desirable expressive and instrumental traits (F+ and M+) but also feminine and masculine behaviors (FBehav and MBehav), and socially undesirable gender traits (F- and M-). Three different models were tested using structural equation modeling. For both men and women, F+ and FBehav load together on one dimension whereas M+ and MBehav load on a second dimension. F- and M- are conceptualized as independent dimensions that are mainly related to the cross-gendered latent factor. With the exception of these similarities, the self-concepts of men and women differed in several important aspects that point to a different meaning of gender roles for the two sexes.

Entwicklung und Validierung des Fragebogen-Inventars für Freizeitinteressen (FIFI)

Zusammenfassung. Jüngste Ergebnisse konnten zeigen, dass Freizeitinteressen relativ wenig mit Berufsinteressen konvergieren, und dass die Ausübung von Freizeitinteressen positive Konsequenzen nach sich ziehen (z. B. steigende Lebenszufriedenheit). Leider existierte bisher kein entsprechendes Messinstrument, welches eine breite, aber auch ökonomische Messung von Freizeitinteressen sowie für einen breiten Erwachsenenaltersbereich differenzierte Untersuchungen von Freizeitinteressen im deutschen Sprachraum erlaubt. Aus diesem Grund wurde das Fragebogen-Inventar für Freizeitinteressen (FIFI) für Erwachsene entwickelt. Anhand exploratorischer Faktorenanalysen ließen sich 21 primäre und 5 sekundäre Freizeitinteressendimensionen an einer Stichprobe von 836 Erwachsenen (18 – 94 Jahre) extrahieren. Mithilfe konfirmatorischer Faktorenanalysen wurden die 5 übergeordneten Dimensionen zweiter Ordnung bestätigt. Darauf aufbauend wurden 21 Primärskalen und 5 Sekundärskalen gebildet, welche befriedigende bis gute interne Konsistenzen und gute bis sehr gute Retest-Reliabilitäten aufwiesen. Weiterhin konnte konvergente Validität der Skalen (hohe Korrelationen zwischen dem Interesse an einer Freizeitaktivität und der Häufigkeit der Ausübung) sowie divergente Validität (relativ geringe Konvergenz zwischen Freizeit- und Berufsinteressen) bestätigt werden.

Vocational and Leisure Interests

Although much attention has been devoted to examining the measurement of vocational interests, much less attention has been directed to studying leisure interests, despite suggestions for incorporation of leisure interests into career counseling, particularly for college students. Furthermore, research on the relations between leisure and vocational interests highlights that some leisure interests are highly related to vocational interests, such as interests in Social, Artistic, and Realistic activities. To advance understanding on interests and the relations between leisure and vocational interests, the current study used Latent Profile Analysis, a novel approach to examining interest profiles that identifies groups of individuals with similar profiles. Support was found for seven different interest profiles in a sample of college students. Additionally, a number of mean differences on work values, work centrality, and personality traits among the seven profiles were examined.

How effective are expressive writing interventions for adolescents? A meta-analytic review

This meta-analysis evaluated the effects of the expressive writing intervention (EW; Pennebaker & Beall, 1986) among adolescents. Twenty-one independent studies that assessed the efficacy of expressive writing on youth samples aged 10-18 ears were collected and analyzed. Results indicated an overall mean g-effect size that was positive in direction but relatively small (0.127), as well as significant g-effect sizes ranging from 0.107 to 0.246 for the outcome domains of Emotional Distress, Problem Behavior, Social Adjustment, and School Participation. Few significant effects were found within specific outcome domains for putative moderator variables that included characteristics of the participants, intervention instructions, or research design. Studies involving adolescents with high levels of emotional problems at baseline reported larger effects on school performance. Studies that implemented a higher dosage intervention (i.e., greater number and, to some extent, greater spacing of sessions) reported larger effects on somatic complaints. Overall, the findings suggest that expressive writing tends to produce small yet significant improvements on adolescents' well-being. The findings highlight the importance of modifying the traditional expressive writing protocol to enhance its efficacy and reduce potential detrimental effects. At this stage of research the evidence on expressive writing as a viable intervention for adolescents is promising but not decisive.

Do the BSRI and PAQ Really Measure Masculinity and Femininity?

The two most used instruments to assess masculinity (M) and femininity (F) are the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) and the Personality Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ). Two hypotheses will be tested: a) multidimensionality versus bidimensionality, and b) to what extent the two instruments, elaborated to measure the same constructs, classify subjects in the same way. Participants were 420 high school students, 198 women and 222 men, aged 12–15 years. Exploratory factor analysis and internal consistency analysis were carried out and log-linear models were tested. The data support a) the multidimensionality of both instruments and b) the lack of full concordance in the classification of persons according to the fourfold typology. Implications of the results are discussed regarding the supposed theory behind instrumentality/expressiveness and masculinity/femininity, as well as for the use of both instruments to classify different subjects into the four distinct types.

Clinical utility of the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) in the Spanish transsexual and nontranssexual population

The aim of the study is to evaluate the usefulness of the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI; Bem, 1974), an overall measurement of the cultural construct of masculinity and femininity, in the psychological assessment of Spanish transsexuals. Seventy male-to-female transsexuals (MF), 51 female-to-male transsexuals (FM), 77 control men, and 79 control women completed the Spanish version of the BSRI. Statistically significant differences between groups were only found on the femininity scale, on which MF transsexuals and control women scored significantly higher than FM transsexuals and control men. The results indicate that (a) only the femininity scale of the BSRI appears to be useful today for evaluating differences in the sex-role identification in Spanish controls and transsexuals; and (b) MF and FM transsexuals score as a function of their gender identity instead of their anatomical sex on the BSRI femininity scale.

Associations Between Femininity and Women's Political Behavior During Midlife

The contention that femininity makes women unsuited for political participation has roots in feminist theory and political science. This study investigated whether the desirable and undesirable dimensions of femininity, corresponding to Feminine Interpersonal Relations (FIR: warmth, nurturance, and interpersonal appeal) and Feminine Self-Doubt (FSD: submissiveness, self-doubt, anxiety, and passivity), have independent and interactive effects on Black and White women's political efficacy and participation. Using questionnaires administered to alumnae of the college classes of 1967–73 in 1992 and 2008, coders assessed femininity variables at Time 1 when participants were in their 40s using items from the California Q-Set. Political variables were assessed at Time 1 and when the participants were in their early 60s. In general, FIR was associated with greater participation and efficacy, both directly and in interaction with low FSD, and FSD was associated with lower efficacy scores. Specifically, at Time 1, women rated high on FIR and low in FSD were highest on political efficacy; those high in both types of femininity scored lowest. At Time 2, among women high in FIR, low FSD was associated with enhanced levels of participation; however, among those low in FIR, FSD was unrelated to participation. Results are discussed in light of women's midlife development and Black women's gender socialization. Recognition of the role of feminine qualities such as warmth, social skill, and compassion in political work could encourage women endorsing feminist beliefs to act politically.

What's in a Label? Judgments of Feminist Men and Feminist Women

Although significant progress has been made on research concerning stereotypes of feminist women, very little is known about the stereotypes of feminist men. College students rated one of four terms—“feminist man,” “feminist woman,” “man,” or “woman.” Compared to “feminist woman,” “feminist man” was evaluated more positively, but as less potent (i.e., lower in stereotypically masculine characteristics) and less heterosexual. Although feminist man had the highest evaluative ratings of the four terms and was rated similarly in confidence to woman and man, compared to the other terms it was rated low in attractiveness and potency. These results suggest that at least on some dimensions a feminist man's masculinity may be questioned, which in turn may be a hindrance to men in adopting the feminist label.

GENDER EFFECTS ON SPECTATORS' ATTITUDES TOWARD WNBA BASKETBALL

The primary objective for this research was to apply the concepts of multifactorial gender identity theory and test the effects of gender on spectators' attitudes towards women's professional basketball. The sample consisted of 466 women and 107 men. Results show that expressive traits and egalitarian gender-role attitudes extend our understanding of the relationship between gender and spectators' affect for women's professional basketball. The findings are discussed in terms of their theoretical and practical contributions, and recommendations for future research are proposed.

Empathizing and systemizing: what are they, and what do they contribute to our understanding of psychological sex differences?

Empathizing and systemizing have recently been put forward as two important individual-difference dimensions, whose different mean levels in men and women are argued to account for many psychological sex differences. This paper presents a series of studies designed to investigate the reliability and validity of the empathizing and systemizing quotients (EQ & SQ), to relate them to existing personality constructs, and to replicate reported sex and sexual orientation-related differences. Correlations with interests and social behaviour suggest the two measures are valid. However, empathizing appears essentially equivalent to agreeableness in the five-factor model of personality. Systemizing cannot be reduced to established personality dimensions, though it is moderately correlated with conscientiousness and openness. Men have higher levels of systemizing than women, and non-heterosexual women higher than heterosexuals. However, no differences were found between heterosexual and non-heterosexual men. Although systemizing and empathizing account for a number of observed sex differences, there are others they do not explain.

Black and white women's perspectives on femininity

The authors explore how Black and White women view three aspects of normative femininity, and whether self-rated femininity is related to feminism. Through telephone surveys, a nationally representative sample of women (N=1130) rated themselves on feminism and items derived from Collins' (2004) benchmarks of femininity: feminine appearance, traits, and traditional gender role ideology. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed both groups conceptualized femininity as including the same dimensions, although Black women rated themselves higher on items related to feminine appearance. Among White women, traditional gender ideology was negatively related to feminism; among Black women, wearing feminine clothes was positively related to feminism. Results are discussed in terms of possibilities for resistance to the hegemonic concept of femininity that both groups share.