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Omodo M, Gardela J, Namatovu A, Okurut RA, Esau M, Acham M, Nakanjako MF, Israel M, Isingoma E, Moses M, Paul L, Ssenkeera B, Atim SA, Gonahasa DN, Sekamatte M, Gouilh MA, Gonzalez JP. Anthrax bio-surveillance of livestock in Arua District, Uganda, 2017-2018. Acta Trop 2023; 240:106841. [PMID: 36693517 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2023.106841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Revised: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Anthrax, caused by Bacillus anthracis, is a widespread zoonotic disease with many human cases, especially in developing countries. Even with its global distribution, anthrax is a neglected disease with scarce information about its actual impact on the community level. Due to the ecological dynamics of anthrax transmission at the wildlife-livestock interface, the Sub-Saharan Africa region becomes a high-risk zone for maintaining and acquiring the disease. In this regard, some subregions of Uganda are endemic to anthrax with regular seasonal trends. However, there is scarce data about anthrax outbreaks in Uganda. Here, we confirmed the presence of B. anthracis in several livestock samples after a suspected anthrax outbreak among livestock and humans in Arua District. Additionally, we explored the potential risk factors of anthrax through a survey within the community kraals. We provide evidence that the most affected livestock species during the Arua outbreak were cattle (86%) compared to the rest of the livestock species present in the area. Moreover, the farmers' education level and the presence of people's anthrax cases were the most critical factors determining the disease's knowledge and awareness. Consequently, the lack of understanding of the ecology of anthrax may contribute to the spread of the infection between livestock and humans, and it is critical to reducing the presence and persistence of the B. anthracis spores in the environment. Finally, we discuss the increasingly recognized necessity to strengthen global capacity using a One Health approach to prevent, detect, control, and respond to public threats in Uganda.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Omodo
- National Animal Disease Diagnostics and Epidemiology Center (NADDEC), Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Jaume Gardela
- Department of Animal Health and Anatomy, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain.
| | - Alice Namatovu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, Uganda
| | - Rose Ademun Okurut
- National Animal Disease Diagnostics and Epidemiology Center (NADDEC), Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Martin Esau
- National Animal Disease Diagnostics and Epidemiology Center (NADDEC), Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Merab Acham
- National Animal Disease Diagnostics and Epidemiology Center (NADDEC), Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Maria Flavia Nakanjako
- National Animal Disease Diagnostics and Epidemiology Center (NADDEC), Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Mugezi Israel
- National Animal Disease Diagnostics and Epidemiology Center (NADDEC), Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Emmauel Isingoma
- National Animal Disease Diagnostics and Epidemiology Center (NADDEC), Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Mwanja Moses
- National Animal Disease Diagnostics and Epidemiology Center (NADDEC), Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Lumu Paul
- National Animal Disease Diagnostics and Epidemiology Center (NADDEC), Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Ben Ssenkeera
- National Animal Disease Diagnostics and Epidemiology Center (NADDEC), Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Stella A Atim
- National Animal Disease Diagnostics and Epidemiology Center (NADDEC), Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries, Kampala, Uganda
| | | | - Musa Sekamatte
- Ministry of Health, National One Health Platform, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Meriadeg Ar Gouilh
- Normandy University, DYNAMYCURE U1311 INSERM, UNICAEN, UNIROUEN, Caen University, 14000 Caen, France; University Hospital Center of Caen, Virology Department, 14000 Caen, France
| | - Jean Paul Gonzalez
- School of Medicine, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Georgetown University, Medical Center, Washington DC, USA
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Avberšek J, Mićunović J, Cociancich V, Paller T, Kušar D, Zajc U, Ocepek M, Špičić S, Duvnjak S, Pate M. A Suggested Diagnostic Approach for Sporadic Anthrax in Cattle to Protect Public Health. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9081567. [PMID: 34442647 PMCID: PMC8399609 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9081567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 07/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The repeated occurrence of anthrax in grazing animals should be a reminder of a widespread presence of Bacillus anthracis spores in the environment. Its rapid diagnosis is critical to protect public health. Here, we report a case of anthrax in cattle that was investigated using conventional and molecular methods. In 2015, six cows suddenly died within three days and the number of dead animals increased to a total of 12 within two weeks. At necropsy, anthrax was suspected. Therefore, spleen tissue samples were collected (from 6/12 animals) and laboratory tests (microscopy, cultivation, and real-time PCR) performed. The results of tissue staining for microscopy and cultivation were in congruence, while B. anthracis real-time PCR outperformed both. Spleen tissues from all six animals were real-time PCR-positive, while B. anthracis was successfully cultivated and detected by microscopy from the spleen of only three animals. Additionally, the ear tissue from another (1/12) cow tested positive by real-time PCR, supporting the suitability of ear clippings for molecular confirmation of B. anthracis. Genotyping of the isolates using multiple-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) revealed a common source of infection as all three typed isolates had an indistinguishable MLVA genotype, which has not been observed previously in Europe. The results indicate that molecular testing should be selected as the first-line tool for confirming anthrax outbreaks in animals to ensure timely protection of public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Avberšek
- Institute of Microbiology and Parasitology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbičeva ulica 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (J.M.); (D.K.); (U.Z.); (M.O.); (M.P.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Jasna Mićunović
- Institute of Microbiology and Parasitology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbičeva ulica 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (J.M.); (D.K.); (U.Z.); (M.O.); (M.P.)
| | - Vasilij Cociancich
- National Veterinary Institute, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbičeva ulica 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (V.C.); (T.P.)
| | - Tomislav Paller
- National Veterinary Institute, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbičeva ulica 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (V.C.); (T.P.)
| | - Darja Kušar
- Institute of Microbiology and Parasitology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbičeva ulica 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (J.M.); (D.K.); (U.Z.); (M.O.); (M.P.)
| | - Urška Zajc
- Institute of Microbiology and Parasitology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbičeva ulica 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (J.M.); (D.K.); (U.Z.); (M.O.); (M.P.)
| | - Matjaž Ocepek
- Institute of Microbiology and Parasitology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbičeva ulica 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (J.M.); (D.K.); (U.Z.); (M.O.); (M.P.)
| | - Silvio Špičić
- Croatian Veterinary Institute, Savska cesta 143, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (S.Š.); (S.D.)
| | - Sanja Duvnjak
- Croatian Veterinary Institute, Savska cesta 143, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (S.Š.); (S.D.)
| | - Mateja Pate
- Institute of Microbiology and Parasitology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbičeva ulica 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (J.M.); (D.K.); (U.Z.); (M.O.); (M.P.)
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Sushma B, Shedole S, Suresh KP, Leena G, Patil SS, Srikantha G. An Estimate of Global Anthrax Prevalence in Livestock: A Meta-analysis. Vet World 2021; 14:1263-1271. [PMID: 34220129 PMCID: PMC8243666 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2021.1263-1271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Aim: Anthrax, caused by the soil-borne spore-forming bacteria called Bacillus anthracis, is a zoonotic disease that persists worldwide in livestock and wildlife and infects humans. It is a great hazard to livestock; henceforth, evaluating the global concerns about the disease occurrence in livestock is essential. This study was conducted to estimate the global prevalence of anthrax and predict high-risk regions, which could be an input to veterinarians to take necessary steps to control and avoid the disease. Materials and Methods: A literature review was performed using online databases, namely, PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, Biomed Central, and Science Direct, to extract relevant publications worldwide between 1992 and 2020.</AQ9> Initially, 174 articles were selected, and after scrutinizing, 24 articles reporting the prevalence of anthrax were found to be adequate for the final meta-analysis. The statistical study was accompanied by employing fixed effects and random effects models using R. Results: The pooled prevalence of anthrax globally was 28% (95% confidence interval, 26-30%) from 2452 samples through the fixed effects model. Continent-wise subgroup analysis through the random effects model revealed that the pooled prevalence of anthrax was highest in Africa (29%) and least in North America (21%). Conclusion: In these publications, anthrax causes economic loss to farmers and, thus, to the world. Hence, controlling anthrax infections in high-risk regions are essential by implementing appropriate control measures to decrease the effect of the disease, thereby reducing economic loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bylaiah Sushma
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, M S Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Matthikere, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
| | - Seema Shedole
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, M S Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Matthikere, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
| | - Kuralayanapalya Puttahonnappa Suresh
- Spatial Epidemiology Laboratory, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) National Institute of Veterinary Epidemiology and Disease Informatics (NIVEDI), Yelahanka, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
| | - Gowda Leena
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, Veterinary College, Hebbal, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
| | - Sharanagouda S Patil
- Virology Laboratory, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) - National Institute of Veterinary Epidemiology and Disease Informatics (NIVEDI), Yelahanka, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
| | - Gowda Srikantha
- Spatial Epidemiology Laboratory, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) National Institute of Veterinary Epidemiology and Disease Informatics (NIVEDI), Yelahanka, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
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Aminu OR, Lembo T, Zadoks RN, Biek R, Lewis S, Kiwelu I, Mmbaga BT, Mshanga D, Shirima G, Denwood M, Forde TL. Practical and effective diagnosis of animal anthrax in endemic low-resource settings. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0008655. [PMID: 32925904 PMCID: PMC7513992 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2020] [Revised: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Anthrax threatens human and animal health, and people's livelihoods in many rural communities in Africa and Asia. In these areas, anthrax surveillance is challenged by a lack of tools for on-site detection. Furthermore, cultural practices and infrastructure may affect sample availability and quality. Practical yet accurate diagnostic solutions are greatly needed to quantify anthrax impacts. We validated microscopic and molecular methods for the detection of Bacillus anthracis in field-collected blood smears and identified alternative samples suitable for anthrax confirmation in the absence of blood smears. We investigated livestock mortalities suspected to be caused by anthrax in northern Tanzania. Field-prepared blood smears (n = 152) were tested by microscopy using four staining techniques as well as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) followed by Bayesian latent class analysis. Median sensitivity (91%, CI 95% [84-96%]) and specificity (99%, CI 95% [96-100%]) of microscopy using azure B were comparable to those of the recommended standard, polychrome methylene blue, PMB (92%, CI 95% [84-97%] and 98%, CI 95% [95-100%], respectively), but azure B is more available and convenient. Other commonly-used stains performed poorly. Blood smears could be obtained for <50% of suspected anthrax cases due to local customs and conditions. However, PCR on DNA extracts from skin, which was almost always available, had high sensitivity and specificity (95%, CI 95% [90-98%] and 95%, CI 95% [87-99%], respectively), even after extended storage at ambient temperature. Azure B microscopy represents an accurate diagnostic test for animal anthrax that can be performed with basic laboratory infrastructure and in the field. When blood smears are unavailable, PCR using skin tissues provides a valuable alternative for confirmation. Our findings lead to a practical diagnostic approach for anthrax in low-resource settings that can support surveillance and control efforts for anthrax-endemic countries globally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olubunmi R. Aminu
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Tiziana Lembo
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Ruth N. Zadoks
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Roman Biek
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Suzanna Lewis
- Public Health England, Porton Down, Salisbury, United Kingdom
| | - Ireen Kiwelu
- Kilimanjaro Clinical Research Institute, Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre, Moshi, Tanzania
- Kilimanjaro Christian Medical University College, Moshi, Tanzania
| | - Blandina T. Mmbaga
- Kilimanjaro Clinical Research Institute, Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre, Moshi, Tanzania
- Kilimanjaro Christian Medical University College, Moshi, Tanzania
| | | | - Gabriel Shirima
- Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Matt Denwood
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Taya L. Forde
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
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Azeem S, Bengis R, Van Aarde R, Bastos AD. Mass Die-Off of African Elephants in Botswana: Pathogen, Poison or a Perfect Storm? AFRICAN JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE RESEARCH 2020. [DOI: 10.3957/056.050.0149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shahan Azeem
- Virology Section, Institute of Microbiology, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore. Pakistan
| | - Roy Bengis
- Retired Chief State Veterinarian, Kruger National Park, South Africa
| | - Rudi Van Aarde
- Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Armanda D.S. Bastos
- Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
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Muller J, Mohammad I, Warner S, Paskin R, Constable F, Fegan M. Genetic Diversity of Australian Bacillus anthracis Isolates Revealed by Multiple-Locus Variable-Number Tandem Repeat Analysis. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8060886. [PMID: 32545283 PMCID: PMC7355618 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8060886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Outbreaks of anthrax occur sporadically in Australia and most commonly in the "anthrax belt", a region which extends from southern Queensland through the centre of New South Wales and into northern Victoria. Little is known about the epidemiological links between Bacillus anthracis isolates taken from different outbreaks and the diversity of strains within Australia. We used multiple-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis employing 25 markers (MLVA25) to genotype 99 B. anthracis isolates from an archival collection of Australian isolates. MLVA25 genotyping revealed eight unique genotypes which clustered within the previously defined A3 genotype of B. anthracis. Genotyping of B. anthracis strains from outbreaks of disease in Victoria identified the presence of multiple genotypes associated with these outbreaks. The geographical distribution of genotypes within Australia suggests that a single genotype was introduced into the eastern states of Australia, followed by the spread and localised differentiation of the pathogen (MLVA25 genotypes MG1-MG6) throughout the anthrax belt. In contrast, unexplained occurrences of disease in areas outside of this anthrax belt which are associated with different genotypes, (MLVA25 genotypes MG7 and MG8) indicate separate introductions of B. anthracis into Australia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janine Muller
- Agriculture Victoria, Department of Jobs Precincts and Regions, Agribio, La Trobe University, 5 Ring Road, Bundoora, Victoria 3083, Australia; (I.M.); (F.C.); (M.F.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Ilhan Mohammad
- Agriculture Victoria, Department of Jobs Precincts and Regions, Agribio, La Trobe University, 5 Ring Road, Bundoora, Victoria 3083, Australia; (I.M.); (F.C.); (M.F.)
| | - Simone Warner
- Environment Protection Authority Victoria, Centre for Applied Sciences, Ernest Jones Drive, Macleod, Victoria 3085, Australia;
| | - Roger Paskin
- OMNI Animal Health Consultancy, 6/35 McLaren Street, Mount Barker, South Australia 5251, Australia;
| | - Fiona Constable
- Agriculture Victoria, Department of Jobs Precincts and Regions, Agribio, La Trobe University, 5 Ring Road, Bundoora, Victoria 3083, Australia; (I.M.); (F.C.); (M.F.)
| | - Mark Fegan
- Agriculture Victoria, Department of Jobs Precincts and Regions, Agribio, La Trobe University, 5 Ring Road, Bundoora, Victoria 3083, Australia; (I.M.); (F.C.); (M.F.)
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EKEBAS G, ATASEVER A, GRAM DY, KARAKAYA E, ABAY S, AYDIN F, GUMUSSOY KS, SAHIN M. A case of Anthrax in two captive pumas (Puma concolor). J Vet Med Sci 2018; 80:1875-1880. [PMID: 30369586 PMCID: PMC6305515 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.18-0262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2018] [Accepted: 10/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, we aimed to report anthrax cases in two pumas, brought to the Pathology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Erciyes University for suspected poisoning upon their sudden death at the Kayseri Zoo, in Turkey. In the necropsy, enlargement and malacia were observed in the spleens. The cut surfaces of the spleens were in extreme red-blackish color. Bacillus anthracis was isolated as a pure culture from both samples which belong to dead pumas. B. anthracis isolates had pXO1 and pXO2 plasmids. Both isolates were found to be sensitive to eight antibacterials tested. This study demonstrates that feeding of the wild carnivorous kept in any zoo with the appropriate meats which belongs to healthy animals is extremely important.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gorkem EKEBAS
- Department of Pathology, Veterinary Faculty, Erciyes
University, 38280, Kayseri, Turkey
| | - Ayhan ATASEVER
- Department of Pathology, Veterinary Faculty, Erciyes
University, 38280, Kayseri, Turkey
| | - Duygu Yaman GRAM
- Department of Pathology, Veterinary Faculty, Erciyes
University, 38280, Kayseri, Turkey
| | - Emre KARAKAYA
- Department of Microbiology, Veterinary Faculty, Erciyes
University, 38280, Kayseri, Turkey
| | - Secil ABAY
- Department of Microbiology, Veterinary Faculty, Erciyes
University, 38280, Kayseri, Turkey
| | - Fuat AYDIN
- Department of Microbiology, Veterinary Faculty, Erciyes
University, 38280, Kayseri, Turkey
| | - Kadir Semih GUMUSSOY
- Department of Microbiology, Veterinary Faculty, Erciyes
University, 38280, Kayseri, Turkey
| | - Mitat SAHIN
- Department of Microbiology, Veterinary Faculty, Kafkas
University, 36100, Kars, Turkey
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CHANDRANAIK BM, D’SOUZA CHARRISER, RAJASHEKAR BIRADAR, SREEVATSAVA V, SHIVASHANKAR BP, NANDINI POOJAPPA, GOMES AMITHAREENA, GIRIDHAR P, BYREGOWDA SM. Pag gene based phylogenic characterization of Bacillus anthracis from sheep. THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCES 2017. [DOI: 10.56093/ijans.v87i1.66823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/03/2023]
Abstract
We report the protective antigen gene based molecular epidemiology of a massive anthrax outbreak in sheep that killed over 100 sheep. The outbreak was unique since the use of higher antibiotics immediately after the live anthrax vaccine had facilitated wide spread of the disease and unscientific disposal of carcasses had precipitated the disease magnitude. B. anthracis was isolated from ear blood samples collected from dead sheep. The isolates were non-motile, non-hemolytic and were pathogenic to mice. Gene coding for the toxic factor 'protective antigen' was targeted for PCR amplification as per WHO and OIE protocols. Sequencing of nucleotides on the conserved pag gene showed that the B. anthracis isolated during this study shared a sequence identity of more than 99.9% with B. anthracis isolates from different species, including human beings. The phylogeny demonstrated the genetic stability of the immunologically protective pag gene across species.
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Goel AK. Anthrax: A disease of biowarfare and public health importance. World J Clin Cases 2015; 3:20-33. [PMID: 25610847 PMCID: PMC4295216 DOI: 10.12998/wjcc.v3.i1.20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2014] [Revised: 10/23/2014] [Accepted: 10/31/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Bioterrorism has received a lot of attention in the first decade of this century. Biological agents are considered attractive weapons for bioterrorism as these are easy to obtain, comparatively inexpensive to produce and exhibit widespread fear and panic than the actual potential of physical damage. Bacillus anthracis (B. anthracis), the etiologic agent of anthrax is a Gram positive, spore forming, non-motile bacterium. This is supposed to be one of the most potent BW agents because its spores are extremely resistant to natural conditions and can survive for several decades in the environment. B. anthracis spores enter the body through skin lesion (cutaneous anthrax), lungs (pulmonary anthrax), or gastrointestinal route (gastrointestinal anthrax) and germinate, giving rise to the vegetative form. Anthrax is a concern of public health also in many countries where agriculture is the main source of income including India. Anthrax has been associated with human history for a very long time and regained its popularity after Sept 2001 incidence in United States. The present review article describes the history, biology, life cycle, pathogenicity, virulence, epidemiology and potential of B. anthracis as biological weapon.
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Hampson K, Lembo T, Bessell P, Auty H, Packer C, Halliday J, Beesley CA, Fyumagwa R, Hoare R, Ernest E, Mentzel C, Metzger KL, Mlengeya T, Stamey K, Roberts K, Wilkins PP, Cleaveland S. Predictability of anthrax infection in the Serengeti, Tanzania. J Appl Ecol 2011; 48:1333-1344. [PMID: 22318563 PMCID: PMC3272456 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02030.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Anthrax is endemic throughout Africa, causing considerable livestock and wildlife losses and severe, sometimes fatal, infection in humans. Predicting the risk of infection is therefore important for public health, wildlife conservation and livestock economies. However, because of the intermittent and variable nature of anthrax outbreaks, associated environmental and climatic conditions, and diversity of species affected, the ecology of this multihost pathogen is poorly understood.We explored records of anthrax from the Serengeti ecosystem in north-west Tanzania where the disease has been documented in humans, domestic animals and a range of wildlife. Using spatial and temporal case-detection and seroprevalence data from wild and domestic animals, we investigated spatial, environmental, climatic and species-specific associations in exposure and disease.Anthrax was detected annually in numerous species, but large outbreaks were spatially localized, mostly affecting a few focal herbivores.Soil alkalinity and cumulative weather extremes were identified as useful spatial and temporal predictors of exposure and infection risk, and for triggering the onset of large outbreaks.Interacting ecological and behavioural factors, specifically functional groups and spatiotemporal overlap, helped to explain the variable patterns of infection and exposure among species.Synthesis and applications. Our results shed light on ecological drivers of anthrax infection and suggest that soil alkalinity and prolonged droughts or rains are useful predictors of disease occurrence that could guide risk-based surveillance. These insights should inform strategies for managing anthrax including prophylactic livestock vaccination, timing of public health warnings and antibiotic provision in high-risk areas. However, this research highlights the need for greater surveillance (environmental, serological and case-detection-orientated) to determine the mechanisms underlying anthrax dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie Hampson
- Boyd Orr Centre for Population and Ecosystem Health, Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
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11
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Durrheim DN, Freeman P, Roth I, Hornitzky M. Epidemiologic questions from anthrax outbreak, Hunter Valley, Australia. Emerg Infect Dis 2009; 15:840-2. [PMID: 19402992 PMCID: PMC2687039 DOI: 10.3201/eid1505.081744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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12
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean V Shadomy
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
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