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Tadee P, Chansakaow S, Tipduangta P, Tadee P, Khaodang P, Chukiatsiri K. Essential oil pharmaceuticals for killing ectoparasites on dogs. J Vet Sci 2024; 25:e5. [PMID: 38311320 PMCID: PMC10839170 DOI: 10.4142/jvs.23189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2023] [Revised: 11/16/2023] [Accepted: 11/26/2023] [Indexed: 02/07/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND External parasites, particularly ticks and fleas, are among the most common problems affecting dogs. Chemical medicines are commonly used to prevent and eliminate such external parasites, but their improper use can cause adverse reactions, and the toxins they contain may remain in the environment. OBJECTIVES The objective of this study was to investigate the in vitro efficacy of Zanthoxylum limonella, citronella, clove, peppermint, and ginger essential oils against dog ticks and fleas and to test the sensitivity of dogs' skin to these essential oils. METHODS The five essential oils were tested for in vitro efficacy against ticks and fleas, and the two most effective essential oils were then tested on the dogs' skin. RESULTS The results revealed that these five essential oils at 16% concentrations effectively inhibited the spawning of female engorged ticks. In addition, all five essential oils had a strong ability to kill tick larvae at concentrations of 2% upward. Furthermore, 4% concentrations of the five essential oils quickly eliminated fleas, especially clove oil, which killed 100% of fleas within 1 h. A 50%, 90%, and 99% lethal concentration (LC50, LC90, and LC99) for the essential oils on tick larvae in 24 h were found to be low values. LC50, LC90, and LC99 for the essential oils on flea in 1 h was lowest values. Clove oil at 16% concentration was the most satisfactory essential oil for application on dogs' skin, with a low percentage of adverse effects. CONCLUSIONS This study confirmed the effectiveness of essential oils for practical use as tick and flea repellents and eliminators. Essential-oil-based pharmaceutical can replace chemical pesticides and provide benefits for both consumers and the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phacharaporn Tadee
- Faculty of Animal Science and Technology, Maejo University, Chiang Mai 50290, Thailand.
| | - Sunee Chansakaow
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand
| | | | - Pakpoom Tadee
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand
| | - Pakasinee Khaodang
- Faculty of Animal Science and Technology, Maejo University, Chiang Mai 50290, Thailand
| | - Kridda Chukiatsiri
- Faculty of Animal Science and Technology, Maejo University, Chiang Mai 50290, Thailand
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Miranda FR, Avelar BR, de Jesus ILR, Guimarães BG, Bonfim IV, Alves MCC, Ferreira TP, Azevedo TRC, Cid YP, Scott FB. Do combinations of fipronil, eugenol and carvacrol have synergistic effects against Rhipicephalus sanguineus? Parasitol Res 2023; 123:48. [PMID: 38095726 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-023-08037-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023]
Abstract
The tick Rhipicephalus sanguineus is one of the main ectoparasites that affects dogs, causing direct and indirect damage to parasitized animals. Currently, infestation control is mainly carried out by using synthetic acaricidal drugs. However, a decrease in efficacy and an increase in resistance to the main therapeutic protocols against tick infestations have been increasingly reported and confirmed, a factor that has driven research into the potential acaricide activity of natural compounds, including in association with synthetic molecules. The aim of this work was to evaluate whether the combinations of fipronil (FIP) and eugenol (EUG), FIP and carvacrol (CAR), and EUG and CAR would have synergistic effects against immature and unfed adult stages of R. sanguineus through in vitro bioassays. Bioassays were carried out using the larval packet test (FAO 2004) adapted for nymphs and adults. The synergistic activity was explored by combining each solution, based on the estimated LC50, in a 1:1 ratio (FIP: EUG, FIP: CAR and EUG: CAR). CompuSyn software was used to evaluate the various pairwise combinations of FIP, EUG and CAR, checking if there was synergism or antagonism between them. FIP and EUG and FIP and CAR showed combination index (CIn) values above 1.45, indicating antagonism. The synergistic activity between EUG and CAR was verified against all unfed phases of R. sanguineus, since the CIn was below 0.70, a value that indicates synergism. The combination of fipronil with either eugenol or carvacrol presented antagonistic effects against R. sanguineus larvae. On the other hand, carvacrol and eugenol had excellent pharmacological synergism against all tick stages with mortality values in the range of 80 to 100%, including the adult stage, which is less susceptible than immature stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Rocha Miranda
- Postgraduate Veterinary Sciences Program, Veterinary Institute, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Barbara Rauta Avelar
- Postgraduate Veterinary Sciences Program, Veterinary Institute, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Ingrid Lins Raquel de Jesus
- Postgraduate Veterinary Sciences Program, Veterinary Institute, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Brena Gava Guimarães
- Postgraduate Veterinary Sciences Program, Veterinary Institute, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Isabelle Vilela Bonfim
- Postgraduate Veterinary Sciences Program, Veterinary Institute, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Melina Cardilo Campos Alves
- Postgraduate Veterinary Sciences Program, Veterinary Institute, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Thais Paes Ferreira
- Animal Parasitology Department, Veterinary Institute, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Thais Ribeiro Correa Azevedo
- Postgraduate Veterinary Sciences Program, Veterinary Institute, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Animal Parasitology Department, Veterinary Institute, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Yara Peluso Cid
- Postgraduate Veterinary Sciences Program, Veterinary Institute, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
- Pharmaceutical Science Department, Health and Biological Science Institute, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
| | - Fabio Barbour Scott
- Postgraduate Veterinary Sciences Program, Veterinary Institute, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Animal Parasitology Department, Veterinary Institute, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Zhou Z, Noland E, Rosser E, Petersen A. Sterile neutrophilic dermatitis in a cat associated with a topical plant-derived oil flea preventative. Vet Dermatol 2021; 33:87-90. [PMID: 34472155 DOI: 10.1111/vde.13019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
A 4-year-old, female spayed, domestic short hair cat presented with an acute eruption of pustules and bullous plaques after application of a plant-based, essential oil flea preventative. Histopathological evaluation of biopsies revealed severe neutrophilic infiltrate within the dermis and culture was negative. The cat's skin lesions responded rapidly to glucocorticoid monotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zijin Zhou
- Small Animal Clinical Sciences, Michigan State University College of Veterinary Medicine, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Erica Noland
- Pathobiology & Diagnostic Investigation, Michigan State University College of Veterinary Medicine, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Edmund Rosser
- Small Animal Clinical Sciences, Michigan State University College of Veterinary Medicine, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Annette Petersen
- Small Animal Clinical Sciences, Michigan State University College of Veterinary Medicine, East Lansing, MI, USA
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Rust MK. Recent Advancements in the Control of Cat Fleas. INSECTS 2020; 11:insects11100668. [PMID: 33003488 PMCID: PMC7600267 DOI: 10.3390/insects11100668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2020] [Revised: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 09/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary The cat flea Ctenocephalides felis felis is the most important pest of domesticated cats and dogs worldwide. This review covers the recent advancements in the control of cat fleas. Over the years, there has been an interest in using ecologically friendly approaches to control fleas. To date, no biological, natural, or cultural means have been discovered that mitigate flea infestations. The recent registration of novel topical and oral therapies promises a new revolution in the control of fleas and ticks and the diseases associated with them. Abstract With the advent of imidacloprid and fipronil spot-on treatments and the oral ingestion of lufenuron, the strategies and methods to control cat fleas dramatically changed during the last 25 years. New innovations and new chemistries have highlighted this progress. Control strategies are no longer based on the tripartite approach of treating the pet, the indoor environment, and outdoors. The ability of modern therapies to break the cat flea life cycle and prevent reproduction has allowed for the stand-alone treatments that are applied or given to the pet. In doing so, we have not only controlled the cat flea, but we have prevented or reduced the impact of many of the diseases associated with ectoparasites and endoparasites of cats and dogs. This review provides an update of newer and non-conventional approaches to control cat fleas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael K Rust
- Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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Lambert MM, Campos DR, Borges DA, de Avelar BR, Ferreira TP, Cid YP, Boylan F, Scott FB, de Almeida Chaves DS, Coumendouros K. Activity of Syzygium aromaticum essential oil and its main constituent eugenol in the inhibition of the development of Ctenocephalides felis felis and the control of adults. Vet Parasitol 2020; 282:109126. [PMID: 32417602 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2020.109126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2019] [Revised: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro activity of Syzygium aromaticum essential oil (SAEO) and its main constituent eugenol (EG) against adult fleas and their action in the maturation of eggs into adults of Ctenocephalides felis felis. In order to evaluate the pulicidal activity, 10 adult fleas were exposed to a filter paper impregnated with SAEO and EG at increasing concentrations of 0.047; 0.094; 0.188; 0.375; 0.750; 1.50; 3.00; 6.00; 12.00 and 24.00 μg cm-2. Flea mortality was evaluated 24 and 48 h after exposure. In order to evaluate the inhibition of the maturation of eggs into adults, 10 eggs were exposed to filter paper impregnated with SAEO and EG at the same concentrations used in the pulicidal test, and the evaluation was performed 30 days after incubation. Untreated repetitions were maintained in both studies (control group). The lethal concentration 50 (LC50) of pulicidal activity to SAEO was 5.70 μg cm-2 in 24 h and 3.91 μg cm-2 in 48 h. The LC90 was 16.10 μg cm-2 and 15.80 μg cm-2 in 24 and 48 h, respectively. The LC50 of inhibition of the maturation of eggs into adults was 0.30 μg cm-2 and the LC90 3.44 μg cm-2. The LC50 of pulicidal activity to EG was 2.40 μg cm-2 in 24 h and 1.40 μg cm-2 in 48 h; the LC90 was 8.10 μg cm-2 and 3.70 μg cm-2 in 24 h and 48 h, respectively. The LC50 of inhibition of the maturation of eggs into adults was 0.10 μg cm-2 and the LC90 0.68 μg cm-2. Based on the results obtained, it is possible to conclude that the both SAEO and EG have in vitro pulicidal activity as well as acting as inhibitors of the maturation of eggs into adults of the flea C. felis felis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monique Moraes Lambert
- Animal Parasitology Department, Veterinary Institute, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, BR 465, Km 7, 23897-000, Seropédica, RJ, Brazil
| | - Diefrey Ribeiro Campos
- Animal Parasitology Department, Veterinary Institute, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, BR 465, Km 7, 23897-000, Seropédica, RJ, Brazil.
| | - Debora Azevedo Borges
- Animal Parasitology Department, Veterinary Institute, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, BR 465, Km 7, 23897-000, Seropédica, RJ, Brazil
| | - Barbara Rauta de Avelar
- Animal Parasitology Department, Veterinary Institute, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, BR 465, Km 7, 23897-000, Seropédica, RJ, Brazil
| | - Thais Paes Ferreira
- Animal Parasitology Department, Veterinary Institute, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, BR 465, Km 7, 23897-000, Seropédica, RJ, Brazil
| | - Yara Peluso Cid
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Department, Health and Biological Science Institute, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, BR 465, Km 7, 23897-000, Seropédica, RJ, Brazil
| | - Fábio Boylan
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Trinity Biosciences Medical Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland
| | - Fabio Barbour Scott
- Animal Parasitology Department, Veterinary Institute, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, BR 465, Km 7, 23897-000, Seropédica, RJ, Brazil
| | - Douglas Siqueira de Almeida Chaves
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Department, Health and Biological Science Institute, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, BR 465, Km 7, 23897-000, Seropédica, RJ, Brazil
| | - Katherina Coumendouros
- Animal Parasitology Department, Veterinary Institute, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, BR 465, Km 7, 23897-000, Seropédica, RJ, Brazil
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Bismarck D, Dusold A, Heusinger A, Müller E. Antifungal in vitro Activity of Essential Oils against Clinical Isolates of Malassezia pachydermatis from Canine Ears: A Report from a Practice Laboratory. Complement Med Res 2019; 27:143-154. [PMID: 31775141 DOI: 10.1159/000504316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Accepted: 10/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The yeast Malassezia pachydermatis is a commensal but also the most isolated pathogenic yeast in canine otitis externa. Essential oils (EOs) exhibit antimicrobial activity and thus could be an alternative for treatment of otitis. OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to analyse the in vitro efficacy of EOs against M. pachydermatis isolates from canine ears. MATERIALS AND METHODS Twenty-two EOs were tested for their in vitro activity against 15 M. pachydermatis isolates by agar disc diffusion. In addition, diluted EOs were tested and volatile antifungal activity was analysed by vapour assay. RESULTS Most EOs showed in vitro efficacy against M. pachydermatis. A different susceptibility pattern of tested isolates was found. Overall, the most potential EO was lemon grass. Also, cinnamon leaf, clove, manuka, Indian melissa, oregano, palmarosa, and winter savory oil exhibited a strong antifungal activity. Volatile activity was proven by the inhibiting effect in vapour assay. CONCLUSION EOs show in vitro activity against M. pachydermatis. This study gives scientific background for the use of EOs in veterinary medicine. Diverse susceptibility patterns of different M. pachydermatis strains emphasise the helpfulness of an aromatogram as one lead for the best choice of an EO for therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Anika Dusold
- Laboklin GmbH & Co. KG, Bad Kissingen, Germany.,Coburg University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Coburg, Germany
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Lloyd JKF. Minimising Stress for Patients in the Veterinary Hospital: Why It Is Important and What Can Be Done about It. Vet Sci 2017; 4:vetsci4020022. [PMID: 29056681 PMCID: PMC5606596 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci4020022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2016] [Revised: 03/12/2017] [Accepted: 03/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Minimising stress for patients should always be a priority in the veterinary hospital. However, this is often overlooked. While a "no stress" environment is not possible, understanding how to create a "low stress" (sometimes called "fear-free") environment and how to handle animals in a less stressful manner benefits patients, staff and the hospital alike. Many veterinary practitioners believe creating a low stress environment is too hard and too time consuming, but this need not be the case. With some simple approaches, minimising patient, and hence staff, stress is achievable in all veterinary practices. This article provides a background on why minimising stress is important and outlines some practical steps that can be taken by staff to minimise stress for presenting and hospitalised patients. Useful resources on recognising signs of stress in dogs and cats, handling, restraint, behaviour modification, medications, and hospital design are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janice K F Lloyd
- College of Public Health, Medicine and Veterinary Science, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia.
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In vitro efficacy of essential oils and extracts of Schinus molle L. against Ctenocephalides felis felis. Parasitology 2016; 143:627-38. [PMID: 26887529 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182016000081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Extracts and essential oils from plants are important natural sources of pesticides. These compounds are considered an alternative to control ectoparasites of veterinary importance. Schinus molle, an endemic species of Brazil, produces a high level of essential oil and several other compounds. The aim of this work was to determinate the chemical composition of extracts and essential oils of S. molle and further to evaluate the activity against eggs and adults of Ctenocephalides felis felis, a predominant flea that infests dogs and cats in Brazil. In an in vitro assay, the non-polar (n-hexane) extract showed 100% efficacy (800 µg cm(-2); LD50 = 524·80 µg cm(-2)) at 24 and 48 h. Its major compound was lupenone (50·25%). Essential oils from fruits and leaves were evaluated, and had 100% efficacy against adult fleas at 800 µg cm(-2) (LD50 = 353·95 µg cm(-2)) and at 50 µg cm(-2) (LD50 = 12·02 µg cm(-2)), respectively. On the other hand, the essential oil from fruits and leaves was not active against flea eggs. This is the first study that reports the insecticidal effects of essential oils and extracts obtained from Schinus molle against Ctenocephalides felis felis.
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Addie DD, Boucraut-Baralon C, Egberink H, Frymus T, Gruffydd-Jones T, Hartmann K, Horzinek MC, Hosie MJ, Lloret A, Lutz H, Marsilio F, Pennisi MG, Radford AD, Thiry E, Truyen U, Möstl K. Disinfectant choices in veterinary practices, shelters and households: ABCD guidelines on safe and effective disinfection for feline environments. J Feline Med Surg 2015; 17:594-605. [PMID: 26101311 PMCID: PMC11148928 DOI: 10.1177/1098612x15588450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
OVERVIEW Regardless of whether a pathogen is viral, bacterial, parasitic, fungal or an emerging unknown, the mainstay of infectious disease control is hygiene, and the cornerstone of good hygiene is effective disinfection. CHALLENGES AND CURRENT CHOICES Certain pathogens present a challenge to kill effectively: parvovirus, protozoal oocysts, mycobacteria, bacterial spores and prions resist most disinfectants but can be eliminated through heat, especially steam, which will kill protozoal oocysts. Heat is the safest and most effective disinfectant, but cannot be universally applied. Temperatures in washing machines and dishwashers should be at least 60 °C to eliminate pathogenic spores and resistant viruses. Enveloped viruses are susceptible to most disinfectants; of the non-enveloped viruses, parvovirus is recognised as being the most difficult to eradicate. Sodium hypochlorite is recommended for many applications: cleaning of floors, laundry, food preparation surfaces and utensils. Skin scrubs and rubs containing alcohols are more effective than those containing chlorhexidine, and less subject to contamination. DISINFECTANTS TO AVOID Deficiency of the enzyme UDP-glucuronosyl transferase renders the cat susceptible to the toxic effects of phenol-based disinfectants (including many essential oils), so these should be avoided in feline environments. Quaternary ammonium compounds (eg, benzalkonium chloride) are also probably best avoided. THE FUTURE Veterinary disinfection approaches in the future may include use of ultraviolet radiation and, increasingly, silver.
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George DR, Finn RD, Graham KM, Sparagano OAE. Present and future potential of plant-derived products to control arthropods of veterinary and medical significance. Parasit Vectors 2014; 7:28. [PMID: 24428899 PMCID: PMC3905284 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-7-28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2013] [Accepted: 01/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of synthetic pesticides and repellents to target pests of veterinary and medical significance is becoming increasingly problematic. One alternative approach employs the bioactive attributes of plant-derived products (PDPs). These are particularly attractive on the grounds of low mammalian toxicity, short environmental persistence and complex chemistries that should limit development of pest resistance against them. Several pesticides and repellents based on PDPs are already available, and in some cases widely utilised, in modern pest management. Many more have a long history of traditional use in poorer areas of the globe where access to synthetic pesticides is often limited. Preliminary studies support that PDPs could be more widely used to target numerous medical and veterinary pests, with modes of action often specific to invertebrates. Though their current and future potential appears significant, development and deployment of PDPs to target veterinary and medical pests is not without issue. Variable efficacy is widely recognised as a restraint to PDPs for pest control. Identifying and developing natural bioactive PDP components in place of chemically less-stable raw or 'whole’ products seems to be the most popular solution to this problem. A limited residual activity, often due to photosensitivity or high volatility, is a further drawback in some cases (though potentially advantageous in others). Nevertheless, encapsulation technologies and other slow-release mechanisms offer strong potential to improve residual activity where needed. The current review provides a summary of existing use and future potential of PDPs against ectoparasites of veterinary and medical significance. Four main types of PDP are considered (pyrethrum, neem, essential oils and plant extracts) for their pesticidal, growth regulating and repellent or deterrent properties. An overview of existing use and research for each is provided, with direction to more extensive reviews given in many sections. Sections to highlight potential issues, modes of action and emerging and future potential are also included.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Olivier A E Sparagano
- Department of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 8ST, UK.
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Khan SA, McLean MK, Slater MR. Concentrated tea tree oil toxicosis in dogs and cats: 443 cases (2002–2012). J Am Vet Med Assoc 2014; 244:95-9. [DOI: 10.2460/javma.244.1.95] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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