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Ma Y, Giardino WJ. Neural circuit mechanisms of the cholecystokinin (CCK) neuropeptide system in addiction. ADDICTION NEUROSCIENCE 2022; 3:100024. [PMID: 35983578 PMCID: PMC9380858 DOI: 10.1016/j.addicn.2022.100024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Given historical focus on the roles for cholecystokinin (CCK) as a peripheral hormone controlling gastrointestinal processes and a brainstem peptide regulating food intake, the study of CCK as a limbic neuromodulator coordinating reward-seeking and emotional behavior remains underappreciated. Furthermore, localization of CCK to specialized interneurons throughout the hippocampus and cortex relegated CCK to being examined primarily as a static cell type marker rather than a dynamic functional neuromodulator. Yet, over three decades of literature have been generated by efforts to delineate the central mechanisms of addiction-related behaviors mediated by the CCK system across the striatum, amygdala, hypothalamus, and midbrain. Here, we cover fundamental findings that implicate CCK neuron activity and CCK receptor signaling in modulating drug intake and drug-seeking (focusing on psychostimulants, opioids, and alcohol). In doing so, we highlight the few studies that indicate sex differences in CCK expression and corresponding drug effects, emphasizing the importance of examining hormonal influences and sex as a biological variable in translating basic science discoveries to effective treatments for substance use disorders in human patients. Finally, we point toward understudied subcortical sources of endogenous CCK and describe how continued neurotechnology advancements can be leveraged to modernize understanding of the neural circuit mechanisms underlying CCK release and signaling in addiction-relevant behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yihe Ma
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences and Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - William J. Giardino
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences and Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
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Abstract
Analysis of the interactive effects of combinations of hormones or other manipulations with qualitatively similar individual effects is an important topic in basic and clinical endocrinology as well as other branches of basic and clinical research related to integrative physiology. Functional, as opposed to mechanistic, analyses of interactions rely on the concept of synergy, which can be defined qualitatively as a cooperative action or quantitatively as a supra-additive effect according to some metric for the addition of different dose-effect curves. Unfortunately, dose-effect curve addition is far from straightforward; rather, it requires the development of an axiomatic mathematical theory. I review the mathematical soundness, face validity, and utility of the most frequently used approaches to supra-additive synergy. These criteria highlight serious problems in the two most common synergy approaches, response additivity and Loewe additivity, which is the basis of the isobole and related response surface approaches. I conclude that there is no adequate, generally applicable, supra-additive synergy metric appropriate for endocrinology or any other field of basic and clinical integrative physiology. I recommend that these metrics be abandoned in favor of the simpler definition of synergy as a cooperative, i.e., nonantagonistic, effect. This simple definition avoids mathematical difficulties, is easily applicable, meets regulatory requirements for combination therapy development, and suffices to advance phenomenological basic research to mechanistic studies of interactions and clinical combination therapy research.
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Navarro M, Cubero I, Chen AS, Chen HY, Knapp DJ, Breese GR, Marsh DJ, Thiele TE. Effects of melanocortin receptor activation and blockade on ethanol intake: a possible role for the melanocortin-4 receptor. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2005; 29:949-57. [PMID: 15976520 PMCID: PMC1360238 DOI: 10.1097/01.alc.0000167740.19702.8c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The melanocortin (MC) system is composed of peptides that are cleaved from the polypeptide precursor pro-opiomelanocortin. A growing body of literature suggests that the MC system modulates neurobiological responses to drugs of abuse. Because ethanol has direct effects on central pro-opiomelanocortin activity, it is possible that MC neuropeptides participate in the control of voluntary ethanol consumption. Here we assessed the possibility that MC receptor (MCR) agonists modulate ethanol intake via the MC3 receptor (MC3R) and/or the MC4 receptor (MC4R) and whether the MCR antagonist AgRP-(83-132) controls ethanol consumption. METHODS Mc3r-deficient (Mc3r) and wild-type (Mc3r) littermate mice were given intraperitoneal (10 mg/kg) and intracerebroventricular (1.0 microg ICV) doses of melanotan II (MTII), a nonselective MCR agonist. To assess the role of MC4R, C57BL/6J mice were given an ICV infusion of the highly selective MC4R agonist cyclo(NH-CH2-CH2-CO-His-d-Phe-Arg-Trp-Glu)-NH2 (1.0 or 3.0 microg). Finally, naïve C57BL/6J mice were given an ICV infusion of AgRP-(83-132) (0.05 and 1.0 microg). RESULTS MTII was similarly effective at reducing ethanol drinking in Mc3r-deficient (Mc3r) and wild-type (Mc3r) littermate mice. Furthermore, ICV infusion of the MC4R agonist significantly reduced ethanol drinking, whereas ICV infusion of AgRP-(83-132) significantly increased ethanol drinking in C57BL/6J mice. Neither MTII nor AgRP-(83-132) altered blood ethanol levels at doses that modulated ethanol drinking. CONCLUSIONS The present results suggest that MC4R, and not MC3R, modulates MCR agonist-induced reduction of ethanol consumption and that ethanol intake is increased by the antagonistic actions of AgRP-(83-132). These findings strengthen the argument that MCR signaling controls ethanol consumption and that compounds directed at MCR may represent promising targets for treating alcohol abuse disorders in addition to obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Montserrat Navarro
- From the Department of Psychology (TET), Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies (MN, DJK, GRB, TET), Department of Psychiatry (DJK, GRB), and Department of Pharmacology (GRB), University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; Department of Obesity Research, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey (ASC, HYC, DJM); and Department of Neurociencia y Ciencias de la Salud, University of Almeria, Spain (MN, IC)
| | - Inmaculada Cubero
- From the Department of Psychology (TET), Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies (MN, DJK, GRB, TET), Department of Psychiatry (DJK, GRB), and Department of Pharmacology (GRB), University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; Department of Obesity Research, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey (ASC, HYC, DJM); and Department of Neurociencia y Ciencias de la Salud, University of Almeria, Spain (MN, IC)
| | - Airu S. Chen
- From the Department of Psychology (TET), Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies (MN, DJK, GRB, TET), Department of Psychiatry (DJK, GRB), and Department of Pharmacology (GRB), University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; Department of Obesity Research, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey (ASC, HYC, DJM); and Department of Neurociencia y Ciencias de la Salud, University of Almeria, Spain (MN, IC)
| | - Howard Y. Chen
- From the Department of Psychology (TET), Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies (MN, DJK, GRB, TET), Department of Psychiatry (DJK, GRB), and Department of Pharmacology (GRB), University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; Department of Obesity Research, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey (ASC, HYC, DJM); and Department of Neurociencia y Ciencias de la Salud, University of Almeria, Spain (MN, IC)
| | - Darin J. Knapp
- From the Department of Psychology (TET), Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies (MN, DJK, GRB, TET), Department of Psychiatry (DJK, GRB), and Department of Pharmacology (GRB), University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; Department of Obesity Research, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey (ASC, HYC, DJM); and Department of Neurociencia y Ciencias de la Salud, University of Almeria, Spain (MN, IC)
| | - George R. Breese
- From the Department of Psychology (TET), Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies (MN, DJK, GRB, TET), Department of Psychiatry (DJK, GRB), and Department of Pharmacology (GRB), University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; Department of Obesity Research, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey (ASC, HYC, DJM); and Department of Neurociencia y Ciencias de la Salud, University of Almeria, Spain (MN, IC)
| | - Donald J. Marsh
- From the Department of Psychology (TET), Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies (MN, DJK, GRB, TET), Department of Psychiatry (DJK, GRB), and Department of Pharmacology (GRB), University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; Department of Obesity Research, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey (ASC, HYC, DJM); and Department of Neurociencia y Ciencias de la Salud, University of Almeria, Spain (MN, IC)
| | - Todd E. Thiele
- From the Department of Psychology (TET), Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies (MN, DJK, GRB, TET), Department of Psychiatry (DJK, GRB), and Department of Pharmacology (GRB), University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; Department of Obesity Research, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey (ASC, HYC, DJM); and Department of Neurociencia y Ciencias de la Salud, University of Almeria, Spain (MN, IC)
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Kulkosky PJ, Wise VJ, Brandt SS, Chavez KJ. Interaction of TRH and CCK in the satiation of alcohol intake. Physiol Behav 2004; 82:53-6. [PMID: 15234590 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2004.04.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2004] [Accepted: 04/05/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) and cholecystokinin octapeptide (CCK) are endogenous neuropeptides known to inhibit intake of alcohol. Although both peptides are released by alcohol consumption and are hypothesized to satiate alcohol intake, their interaction has not been examined. We deprived ad-lib-fed male (n=6) and female (n=4) Wistar rats of water for 23 h and then gave them 30 min access to 5% w/v ethanol, followed by 30 min access to water. After adaptation to this schedule, rats were randomly assigned to receive intraperitoneal injections of either saline+saline, CCK (4 microg/kg)+saline, saline+TRH (10 mg/kg) or CCK+TRH immediately before alcohol access. Analyses of variance revealed a significant (P<.05) effect of CCK, and a significant interaction of CCK and TRH in control of ethanol consumption. CCK reliably reduced alcohol intake, and TRH blocked this satiation effect of CCK, increasing intake by 88.8% and 34.6% in males and females, respectively. TRH increased water intake in females, and CCK blocked this effect of TRH. Results indicate an infra-dose-additive interaction of CCK and TRH in satiation of alcohol intake, which may reflect a natural, endogenous neuropeptide interaction in the regulation of caloric intake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Kulkosky
- Department of Psychology, Colorado State University--Pueblo, Pueblo, CO 81001-4901, USA.
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Kulkosky PJ, Clayborne YJ, Sandoval SL. Cholecystokinin and bombesin inhibit ethanol and food intake in rats selectively bred for ethanol sensitivity. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1993; 17:545-51. [PMID: 8333582 DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.1993.tb00797.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Cholecystokinin octapeptide (CCK-8) and bombesin tetradecapeptide (BBS-14) are brain-gut neuropeptides shown to inhibit intake and choice of alcohol solutions and foods in a variety of species. Recently, Draski and colleagues selectively bred strains descended from N/Nih outbred Norway rats that differ in sleep time after injection of ethanol. The intake of 5% w/v ethanol, food, and water was measured in these rats with high, low, and control alcohol sensitivity (HAS, LAS, and CAS), after intraperitoneal injection of randomized sequences of doses of CCK-8 or BBS-14 (0-8 micrograms/kg). During baseline adaptation to water deprivation-induced consumption of alcohol, LAS rats consumed reliably more ethanol than HAS or CAS rats. Injection of CCK-8 or BBS-14 significantly and equivalently suppressed intake of ethanol and food at 30 min after presentation in each group of rats. Water intake and food intake at 30-60 min following alcohol access was not affected by prior injection of either neuropeptide. Large differences in alcohol neurosensitivity (HAS > CAS > LAS) were observed in these rats' resting behavior for 1 hr after intraperitoneal injection of 1 g/kg of ethanol. These selectively bred alcohol neurosensitivity differences cannot be explained by corresponding differences in sensitivity to the inhibitory behavioral effects of CCK-8 or BBS-14. However, differences in alcohol intake and resting behavior do correspond to artificially selected sensitivities to ethanol's hypnotic effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- P J Kulkosky
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern Colorado, Pueblo 81001-4901
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Kulkosky PJ, Sanchez MR, Marrinan DA. Bombesin reduces alcohol choice in nutritive expectancy and limited-access procedures. Alcohol 1992; 9:123-7. [PMID: 1599623 DOI: 10.1016/0741-8329(92)90022-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Bombesin is a bioactive tetradecapeptide found in nerves of the brain and gut and previously shown to inhibit intake of ethanol in forced-choice, one-bottle tests in water-deprived rats. In the present experiments, intraperitoneal bombesin (4-100 micrograms/kg) reduced selection of alcohol in two-bottle choice tests with water. In an application of the "nutritive expectancy" procedure, weight-reduced rats received access to 4% w/v ethanol and water. Bombesin injection suppressed the intake of ethanol, but not of water, in rats with prior ethanol experience. In an application of the "limited access" procedure, nondeprived rats received access to 6% w/v ethanol and water in nonhome cages during either the light or the dark phase of a 12:12 h lighting cycle. Bombesin injection lowered the intake of ethanol, but not of water, in both phases of the lighting cycle and in both sexes. Water deprivation is not necessary for bombesin to inhibit alcohol intake and this effect cannot be explained by hypodipsia, nonspecific debilitation, or conditioned aversion. Endogenous bombesin-like neuropeptides may specifically reduce choice of alcohol by signaling satiation with ethanol.
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Affiliation(s)
- P J Kulkosky
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern Colorado, Pueblo 81001-4901
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Kulkosky PJ, Foderaro MA, Sandoval SL, Cesar SS, Marrinan DA. Cholecystokinin-induced satiation with ethanol: effects of lighting cycle and limited access procedures. Alcohol 1991; 8:223-7. [PMID: 2069737 DOI: 10.1016/0741-8329(91)90886-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Cholecystokinin (CCK) is a brain-gut neuropeptide and hormone previously shown to inhibit alcohol intake in water- or food-deprived rats. The effects of CCK and the phase of lighting cycle on alcohol intake in rats were investigated in a comparison of limited access and water-restriction procedures. The limited access procedure (LAP) is a recently developed technique for inducing free-choice alcohol consumption in nondeprived animals. Two groups of 12 male rats each were maintained in either normal or reversed 12:12 L:D lighting cycles and simultaneously given 40 minutes' access to 6% w/v ethanol and water in nonhome cages. After adaptation to this procedure, CCK octapeptide (0.5-16 micrograms/kg) was injected IP prior to access to fluids. During LAP, CCK reduced alcohol intake and increased water intake more potently in the dark phase. These effects of CCK were more reliable when the design was replicated, which suggests the importance of acquired expectancies for the development of CCK's actions. CCK more effectively reduced alcohol intake in LAP, than in a 23.3-h water-deprivation procedure for inducing alcohol intake in a 2-bottle choice test with water. However, CCK was less so effective in LAP, than in the water-deprivation procedure when alcohol was presented alone in a 1-bottle test. The alcohol satiation effect of CCK is independent of prior deprivation and not an artifact of thirst reduction, debilitation, or conditioned aversion, because CCK strongly increased water intake in the limited access procedure, and ethanol preference remained robust after experience with CCK. CCK may operate endogenously as a specific factor in satiation with ethanol.
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Affiliation(s)
- P J Kulkosky
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern Colorado, Pueblo 81001-4901
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Abstract
The methylxanthine caffeine and ethyl alcohol are widely used and powerful psychotropic drugs, but their interactions are not well understood. Bombesin is a brain-gut neuropeptide which is thought to function as a neurochemical factor in the inhibitory control of voluntary alcohol ingestion. We assessed the effects of combinations of intraperitoneal (i.p.) doses of caffeine (CAF, 0.1-50 mg/kg) and bombesin (BBS, 1-10 micrograms/kg) on 5% w/v ethanol solution and food intake in deprived rats. Deprived male and female Wistar rats received access to 5% ethanol or Purina chow for 30 minutes after i.p. injections. In single doses, CAF and BBS significantly decreased both ethanol and food consumption, at 50 mg/kg and 10 micrograms/kg, respectively. CAF and BBS combinations produced infra-additive, or less-than-expected inhibitory effects on ethanol intake, but simple additive inhibitory effects on food intake. This experimental evidence suggests a reciprocal blocking of effects of CAF and BBS on ethanol intake but not food intake. Caffeine, when interacting with bombesin, increases alcohol consumption beyond expected values. Caffeine could affect the operation of endogenous satiety signals for alcohol consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- M A Dietze
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern Colorado, Pueblo 81001
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Abstract
Release of the brain-gut peptide cholecystokinin (CCK) is stimulated by intragastric instillation of ethanol, and peripheral administration of CCK inhibits ethanol consumption. To assess the temporal specificity of the inhibitory effect of CCK on alcohol intake, water-deprived rats were given 5% ethanol at 20, 10 or 0 min after intraperitoneal injections of CCK octapeptide. Delaying access to ethanol for 20 min prevented a significant effect of CCK on intake. CCK's temporally constrained inhibitory action on alcohol consumption is consistent with an ethanol satiation effect. To test the motivational specificity of CCK's effect on fluid intake, rats were allowed a 2-bottle choice of 2% ethanol and water after CCK injections. Ethanol solution intake was suppressed by CCK, and total water intake was unaffected. The putative alcohol satiation action of CCK is appropriately specific to ethanol solution in free-choice tests. Hungry, but not fluid-deprived rats that were either ethanol experienced or naive received a 2-bottle choice of 4% ethanol or water after CCK or saline injections. CCK again specifically inhibited ethanol intake, but this effect required prior ethanol experience. Doses of CCK and naloxone, an opioid receptor blocker, combined to inhibit ethanol intake in an infra-dose-additive manner in water-deprived rats. CCK may act endogenously, in part on opioid receptor-mediated processes, as a preabsorptive satiety signal of ethanol. The full expression of this action appears to depend on prior conditioning of nutritive expectancy of the postingestive effects of alcohol.
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Affiliation(s)
- P J Kulkosky
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern Colorado, Pueblo 81001-4901
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