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Lamża Ł. Diversity of 'simple' multicellular eukaryotes: 45 independent cases and six types of multicellularity. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2023; 98:2188-2209. [PMID: 37475165 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Revised: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/22/2023]
Abstract
Multicellularity evolved multiple times in the history of life, with most reviewers agreeing that it appeared at least 20 times in eukaryotes. However, a specific list of multicellular eukaryotes with clear criteria for inclusion has not yet been published. Herein, an updated critical review of eukaryotic multicellularity is presented, based on current understanding of eukaryotic phylogeny and new discoveries in microbiology, phycology and mycology. As a result, 45 independent multicellular lineages are identified that fall into six distinct types. Functional criteria, as distinct from a purely topological definition of a cell, are introduced to bring uniformity and clarity to the existing definitions of terms such as colony, multicellularity, thallus or plasmodium. The category of clonal multicellularity is expanded to include: (i) septated multinucleated thalli found in Pseudofungi and early-branching Fungi such as Chytridiomycota and Blastocladiomycota; and (ii) multicellular reproductive structures formed by plasmotomy in intracellular parasites such as Phytomyxea. Furthermore, (iii) endogeneous budding, as found in Paramyxida, is described as a form of multicellularity. The best-known case of clonal multicellularity, i.e. (iv) non-separation of cells after cell division, as known from Metazoa and Ochrophyta, is also discussed. The category of aggregative multicellularity is expanded to include not only (v) pseudoplasmodial forms, such a sorocarp-forming Acrasida, but also (vi) meroplasmodial organisms, such as members of Variosea or Filoreta. A common set of topological, geometric, genetic and life-cycle criteria are presented that form a coherent, philosophically sound framework for discussing multicellularity. A possibility of a seventh type of multicellularity is discussed, that of multi-species superorganisms formed by protists with obligatory bacterial symbionts, such as some members of Oxymonada or Parabasalia. Its inclusion is dependent on the philosophical stance taken towards the concepts of individuality and organism in biology. Taxa that merit special attention are identified, such as colonial Centrohelea, and a new speculative form of multicellularity, possibly present in some reticulopodial amoebae, is briefly described. Because of insufficient phylogenetic and morphological data, not all lineages could be unequivocally identified, and the true total number of all multicellular eukaryotic lineages is therefore higher, likely close to a hundred.
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Affiliation(s)
- Łukasz Lamża
- Copernicus Center for Interdisciplinary Studies, Jagiellonian University, Szczepanska 1, Kraków, 31-011, Poland
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Kostygov AY, Karnkowska A, Votýpka J, Tashyreva D, Maciszewski K, Yurchenko V, Lukeš J. Euglenozoa: taxonomy, diversity and ecology, symbioses and viruses. Open Biol 2021; 11:200407. [PMID: 33715388 PMCID: PMC8061765 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.200407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Euglenozoa is a species-rich group of protists, which have extremely diverse lifestyles and a range of features that distinguish them from other eukaryotes. They are composed of free-living and parasitic kinetoplastids, mostly free-living diplonemids, heterotrophic and photosynthetic euglenids, as well as deep-sea symbiontids. Although they form a well-supported monophyletic group, these morphologically rather distinct groups are almost never treated together in a comparative manner, as attempted here. We present an updated taxonomy, complemented by photos of representative species, with notes on diversity, distribution and biology of euglenozoans. For kinetoplastids, we propose a significantly modified taxonomy that reflects the latest findings. Finally, we summarize what is known about viruses infecting euglenozoans, as well as their relationships with ecto- and endosymbiotic bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexei Y. Kostygov
- Life Science Research Centre, Faculty of Science, University of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czech Republic
- Zoological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, St Petersburg, Russia
| | - Anna Karnkowska
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, Faculty of Biology, Biological and Chemical Research Centre, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Jan Votýpka
- Institute of Parasitology, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice (Budweis), Czech Republic
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Daria Tashyreva
- Institute of Parasitology, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice (Budweis), Czech Republic
| | - Kacper Maciszewski
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, Faculty of Biology, Biological and Chemical Research Centre, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Vyacheslav Yurchenko
- Life Science Research Centre, Faculty of Science, University of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czech Republic
- Martsinovsky Institute of Medical Parasitology, Tropical and Vector Borne Diseases, Sechenov University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Julius Lukeš
- Institute of Parasitology, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice (Budweis), Czech Republic
- Faculty of Sciences, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice (Budweis), Czech Republic
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Tikhonenkov DV, Gawryluk RMR, Mylnikov AP, Keeling PJ. First finding of free-living representatives of Prokinetoplastina and their nuclear and mitochondrial genomes. Sci Rep 2021; 11:2946. [PMID: 33536456 PMCID: PMC7859406 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-82369-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Kinetoplastids are heterotrophic flagellated protists, including important parasites of humans and animals (trypanosomatids), and ecologically important free-living bacterial consumers (bodonids). Phylogenies have shown that the earliest-branching kinetoplastids are all parasites or obligate endosymbionts, whose highly-derived state makes reconstructing the ancestral state of the group challenging. We have isolated new strains of unusual free-living flagellates that molecular phylogeny shows to be most closely related to endosymbiotic and parasitic Perkinsela and Ichthyobodo species that, together with unidentified environmental sequences, form the clade at the base of kinetoplastids. These strains are therefore the first described free-living prokinetoplastids, and potentially very informative in understanding the evolution and ancestral states of morphological and molecular characteristics described in other kinetoplastids. Overall, we find that these organisms morphologically and ultrastructurally resemble some free-living bodonids and diplonemids, and possess nuclear genomes with few introns, polycistronic mRNA expression, high coding density, and derived traits shared with other kinetoplastids. Their genetic repertoires are more diverse than the best-studied free-living kinetoplastids, which is likely a reflection of their higher metabolic potential. Mitochondrial RNAs of these new species undergo the most extensive U insertion/deletion editing reported so far, and limited deaminative C-to-U and A-to-I editing, but we find no evidence for mitochondrial trans-splicing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denis V. Tikhonenkov
- grid.4886.20000 0001 2192 9124Papanin Institute for Biology of Inland Waters, Russian Academy of Sciences, Borok, 152742 Russia ,grid.446209.d0000 0000 9203 3563AquaBioSafe Laboratory, University of Tyumen, 625003 Tyumen, Russia
| | - Ryan M. R. Gawryluk
- grid.143640.40000 0004 1936 9465Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia V8W 2Y2 Canada
| | - Alexander P. Mylnikov
- grid.4886.20000 0001 2192 9124Papanin Institute for Biology of Inland Waters, Russian Academy of Sciences, Borok, 152742 Russia
| | - Patrick J. Keeling
- grid.17091.3e0000 0001 2288 9830Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4 Canada
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Goodwin JD, Lee TF, Kugrens P, Simpson AGB. Allobodo chlorophagus n. gen. n. sp., a Kinetoplastid that Infiltrates and Feeds on the Invasive Alga Codium fragile. Protist 2018; 169:911-925. [PMID: 30445354 DOI: 10.1016/j.protis.2018.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2018] [Revised: 07/21/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
A novel biflagellate protist that consumed chloroplasts inside material of the invasive marine green alga Codium fragile was reported from the U.S. east coast in 2003. We observed a similar association in C. fragile from five sites in Nova Scotia, Canada during 2013 and 2014. After incubating Codium fragments for 2-3 days, some utricles and filaments contained numerous chloroplast-consuming cells. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) confirmed that these were kinetoplastids with a pankinetoplast, large electron-dense droplets in the cytoplasm and a connective between the paraxonemal rod bases, but no conspicuous para-cytopharyngeal rod, all consistent with U.S. material observed in 2003. The ITS1-5.8S rRNA-ITS2 sequences from 13 Nova Scotia isolates were identical. SSU rRNA gene phylogenies placed the Codium-associated kinetoplastid in neobodonid clade '1E'. Clade 1E likely contains no previously described species, and branches outside all other major neobodonid groups, either as their sister or as a separate lineage, depending on rooting. These results indicate that the kinetoplastid represents a single species that merits a new genus (and family), and we describe it as Allobodo chlorophagus n. gen., n. sp. The lack of evidence for food sources other than Codium is consistent with a parasitic association, but other possibilities exist (e.g. necrotrophy).
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua D Goodwin
- Department of Biology, and Centre for Comparative Genomics and Evolutionary Bioinformatics, Dalhousie University, Halifax B3H 4R2, Canada
| | | | | | - Alastair G B Simpson
- Department of Biology, and Centre for Comparative Genomics and Evolutionary Bioinformatics, Dalhousie University, Halifax B3H 4R2, Canada.
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Tikhonenkov DV, Janouškovec J, Keeling PJ, Mylnikov AP. The Morphology, Ultrastructure and SSU rRNA Gene Sequence of a New Freshwater Flagellate, Neobodo borokensis
n. sp. (Kinetoplastea, Excavata). J Eukaryot Microbiol 2015; 63:220-32. [DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2015] [Revised: 09/16/2015] [Accepted: 09/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Denis V. Tikhonenkov
- Laboratory of Microbiology; Institute for Biology of Inland Waters; Russian Academy of Sciences; Borok Yaroslavl Region 1527542 Russia
- Department of Botany; University of British Columbia; Vancouver V6T 1Z4 British Columbia Canada
| | - Jan Janouškovec
- Department of Botany; University of British Columbia; Vancouver V6T 1Z4 British Columbia Canada
- Canadian Institute for Advanced Research; CIFAR Program in Integrated Microbial Diversity; Toronto M5G 1Z8 Ontario Canada
| | - Patrick J. Keeling
- Department of Botany; University of British Columbia; Vancouver V6T 1Z4 British Columbia Canada
- Canadian Institute for Advanced Research; CIFAR Program in Integrated Microbial Diversity; Toronto M5G 1Z8 Ontario Canada
| | - Alexander P. Mylnikov
- Laboratory of Microbiology; Institute for Biology of Inland Waters; Russian Academy of Sciences; Borok Yaroslavl Region 1527542 Russia
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PATERSON WBROCKLEY, WOO PATRICKTK. Electron Microscopic Observations of the Bloodstream Form ofCryptobia salmositicaKatz, 1951 (Kinetoplastida: Bodonina)1. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.1983.tb02944.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Abstract
Despite extensive phylogenetic analysis of small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSUrRNA) genes, the deep-level relationships among kinetoplastids remain poorly understood, limiting our grasp of their evolutionary history, especially the origins of their bizarre mitochondrial genome organizations. In this study we examine the SSUrRNA data in the light of a new marker--cytoplasmic heat shock protein 90 (hsp90) sequences. Our phylogenetic analyses divide kinetoplastids into four main clades. Clades 1-3 include the various bodonid kinetoplastids. Trypanosomatids comprise the fourth clade. SSUrRNA analyses give vastly different and poorly supported positions for the root of the kinetoplastid tree, depending on the out-group and analysis method. This is probably due to the extraordinary length of the branch between kinetoplastids and any out-group. In contrast, almost all hsp90 analyses place the root between clade 1 (including Dimastigella, Rhynchomonas, several Bodo spp., and probably Rhynchobodo) and all other kinetoplastids. Maximum likelihood and maximum likelihood distance analyses of hsp90 protein and second codon-position nucleotides place trypanosomatids adjacent to Bodo saltans and Bodo cf. uncinatus (clade 3), as (weakly) do SSUrRNA analyses. Hsp90 first codon- plus second codon-position nucleotide analyses return a slightly different topology. We show that this may be an artifact caused, in part, by the different evolutionary behavior of first- and second-codon positions. This study provides the most robust evidence to date that trypanosomatids are descended from within bodonids and that B. saltans is a close relative of trypanosomatids. A total reevaluation of the high-level systematics within kinetoplastids is needed. We confirm that the interlocking network organization of kinetoplast DNA seen in trypanosomatids is a derived condition within kinetoplastids but suggest that open-conformation minicircles may have arisen early in kinetoplastid evolution. Further understanding of the evolution of kinetoplast structure and RNA editing is hampered by a paucity of data from basal (i.e., clade 1) bodonids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alastair G B Simpson
- Department of Biochemistry, Canadian Institute for Advanced Research, Program in Evolutionary Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B3H 4H7.
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Simpson AG, Van Den Hoff J, Bernard C, Burton HR, Patterson DJ. The ultrastructure and systematic position of the euglenozoon Postgaardi mariagerensis, Fenchel et al. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1997. [DOI: 10.1016/s0003-9365(97)80049-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Abstract
The flagellar apparatus of euglenoids consists of two functional basal bodies, three unequal microtubular roots subtending the reservoir, and a fourth band of microtubules nucleated from one of the flagellar roots and subtending the reservoir membrane. The flagellar apparatus of some euglenoids may contain additional basal bodies, striated roots ("rhizoplasts"), fibrous roots, striated connecting fibers between basal bodies, layered structures, or various electron-dense connective substances. With the possible exception of Petalomonas cantuscygni, nearly all euglenoids are biflagellate although the length of one flagellum may be highly reduced. The flagellar transition zone and number of basal bodies are highly variable among species. In recent years a cytoplasmic pocket that branches off from the reservoir has been discovered. The microtubules of the ventral flagellar root are continuous with the microtubules which line this pocket. Based on positional and structural similarities, this structure is believed to be homologous with the MTR/cytostome of bodonids. Coupled with other ultrastructural and biochemical data, the fine structure of the flagellar apparatus supports the belief that the euglenoid flagellates are descendant from bodonid ancestors.
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Affiliation(s)
- M A Farmer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08855-1049
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Ultrastructure of a Colourless Flagellate, Phyllomitus apiculatusSkuja 1948 (Kinetoplastida). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1986. [DOI: 10.1016/s0003-9365(86)80001-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Langreth SG, Balber AE. Protein uptake and digestion in bloodstream and culture forms of Trypanosoma brucei. THE JOURNAL OF PROTOZOOLOGY 1975; 22:40-53. [PMID: 1117436 DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.1975.tb00943.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The mechanisms of ferritin uptake and digestion differ in bloodstream and culture forms of Trypanosoma brucei. Ferritin enters bloodstream forms from the flagellar pocket by pinocytosis in large spiny-coated vesicles. These vesicles become continuous with straight tubular extensions of a complex, mostly tubular, collecting membrane membrane system where ferritin is concentrated. From the collecting membrane system the tracer enters large digestive vacuoles. Small spiny-coated vesicles, which never contain ferritin, are found in the Golgi region, fusing with the collecting membrane system, and around the flagellar pocket. Acid phosphatase activity is present in some small spiny-coated vesicles which may represent primary lysosomes. This enzymic activity is also found in the flagellar pocket, pinocytotic vesicles, the collecting membrane system, the Golgi (mature face), and digestive vacuoles of bloodstream forms. About 50 percent of the acid phosphatase activity of blood forms is latent. The remaining nonlatent activity is firmly cell-associated and probably represents activity in the flagellar pocket. The structures involved in ferritin uptake and digestion are larger and more active in the short stumpy than in the long slender bloodstream forms. The short stumpy forms also have more autophagic vacuoles. No pinocytotic large, spiny-coated vesicles or Golgi-derived, small spiny-coated vesicles are seen in culture forms. Ferritin leaves the flagellar pocket of these forms and enters small smooth cisternae located just beneath bulges in the pocket membrane. The tracer then passes through a cisternal collecting membrane network, where it is concentrated, and then into multivesicular bodies. In the culture forms, acid phosphatase activity is localized in the cisternal system, multivesicular bodies, the Golgi (mature face), and small vesicles in the Golgi and cisternal regions. The flagellar pocket has no acid phosphatase activity, and almost all the acitvity is latent in these forms. The culture forms do not release acid phosphatase into culture medium during 4 days growth. Uptake of ferritin by all forms is almost completely inhibited by low temperature. These differences among the long slender and short stumpy bloodstream forms and culture forms are undoubtedly adaptive and reflect different needs of the parasite in different life cycle stages.
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