Indicator organisms for estuarine and marine waters

Quorum sensing disruption regulates hydrolytic enzyme and biofilm production in estuarine bacteria

Biofilms of heterotrophic bacteria cover organic matter aggregates and constitute hotspots of mineralization, primarily acting through extracellular hydrolytic enzyme production. Nevertheless, regulation of both biofilm and hydrolytic enzyme synthesis remains poorly investigated, especially in estuarine ecosystems. In this study, various bioassays, mass spectrometry and genomics approaches were combined to test the possible involvement of quorum sensing (QS) in these mechanisms. QS is a bacterial cell-cell communication system that relies notably on the emission of N-acylhomoserine lactones (AHLs). In our estuarine bacterial collection, we found that 28 strains (9%), mainly Vibrio, Pseudomonas and Acinetobacter isolates, produced at least 14 different types of AHLs encoded by various luxI genes. We then inhibited the AHL QS circuits of those 28 strains using a broad-spectrum lactonase preparation and tested whether biofilm production as well as β-glucosidase and leucine-aminopeptidase activities were impacted. Interestingly, we recorded contrasted responses, as biofilm production, dissolved and cell-bound β-glucosidase and leucine-aminopeptidase activities significantly increased in 4%-68% of strains but decreased in 0%-21% of strains. These findings highlight the key role of AHL-based QS in estuarine bacterial physiology and ultimately on biogeochemical cycles. They also point out the complexity of QS regulations within natural microbial assemblages.

Assessment of bacterial contamination of Mytilus galloprovincialis, Cardium edule and water quality in Bouregreg estuary (Morocco, Atlantic Ocean)

The Moroccan marine environment is threatened by several types of pollution. Indeed, the littoral zone knew an urban, industrial and agricultural development without precedent; moreover, coastal waters have served as discharges for almost all activities linked to this development. The aim of this study is to determine the biological, physicochemical and bacteriological quality of waters and bivalve shells in the Bouregreg estuary. Sampling was carried out at four stations (S1, S2, S3 and S4) located downstream to upstream of the estuary. Thus, we analysed the degree of contamination by total coliform, faecal coliform and faecal streptococci in the water and in the flesh of Mytilus galloprovincialis and Cardium edule and determined the physicochemical parameters of seawater samples, which included temperature, dissolved oxygen, electrical conductivity, pH, total hardness, biological oxygen demand for five days (BOD5), complete alkalimetric title, NO2−, NO3−, NH4+, Fe2+, K+, SO42−, HCO3−, Cl−, Na+, Mg2+and Ca2+. The S1, S2 and S3 stations were shown to have more or less homogeneous physicochemical properties. The evolution of faecal bacteriological contamination of water and bivalves has shown that faecal pollution of the environment varies according to the stations and according to the seasons. The degree of contamination is high in autumn and winter and comes from wastewater and runoff discharges which, by leaching agricultural land, bring a large number of microorganisms to the environment. This influences the quality of the aquatic fauna, in particular, the infestation of lamellibranch molluscs such as in Mytilus galloprovincialis and Cardium edule. We have noted that the contamination of mussels by these types of microorganisms follows, more or less, that of the biotope. It should also be noted that in summer, the faecal contamination of the environment increases with the arrival of summer visitors.

Genetic relatedness of faecal coliforms and enterococci bacteria isolated from water and sediments of the Apies River, Gauteng, South Africa

To date, the microbiological quality of river sediments and its impact on water resources are not included in the water quality monitoring assessment. Therefore, the aim of this study was to establish genetic relatedness between faecal coliforms and enterococci isolated from the river water and riverbed sediments of Apies River to better understand the genetic similarity of microorganisms between the sediment and water phases. Indicator bacteria were subjected to a molecular study, which consisted of PCR amplification and sequence analysis of the 16S rRNA and 23S rRNA gene using specific primers for faecal coliforms and enterococci, respectively. Results revealed that the Apies River had high faecal pollution levels with enterococci showing low to moderate correlation coefficient (r² values ranged from 0.2605 to 0.7499) compared to the faecal coliforms which showed zero to low correlation (r² values ranged from 0.0027 to 0.1407) indicating that enterococci may be better indicator than faecal coliforms for detecting faecal contamination in riverbed sediments. The phylogenetic tree of faecal coliforms revealed a 98% homology among their nucleotide sequences confirming the close genetic relatedness between river water and riverbed sediment isolates. The phylogenetic tree of the enterococci showed that Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium are the predominant species found in both river water and riverbed sediments with bootstrap values of ≥99%. A high degree of genetic relatedness between sediment and water isolates indicated a possible common ancestry and transmission pathway. We recommend the microbial monitoring of riverbed sediments as it harbours more diverse microbial community and once resuspended may cause health and environmental problems.

INFECTIOUS DISEASE AND TOXICOLOGICAL MONITORING OF STRANDED PACIFIC HARBOR SEALS (PHOCA VITULINA RICHARDSI) IN COOK INLET AS SURROGATES FOR MONITORING ENDANGERED BELUGAS (DELPHINAPTERUS LEUCAS)

  Pacific harbor seals ( Phoca vitulina richardsi) and belugas ( Delphinapterus leucas ) eat many of the same prey species, occupy the same geographic area, and demonstrate site fidelity in Cook Inlet, Alaska. Although most direct research involving the critically endangered belugas is currently prohibited, studying harbor seals may provide important information about this beluga population. In recent years, harbor seal populations in Alaska have declined for unknown reasons. As part of its stranding program, the Alaska SeaLife Center (ASLC) managed 59 cases of live and dead stranded harbor seals from Cook Inlet between 1997 and 2011. Animals were screened for a variety of diseases and contaminants of concern. Animals were negative by serology to the following diseases: avian influenza, canine distemper virus, dolphin morbillivirus, porpoise morbillivirus, Leptospira canicola, L. grippotyphosa, L. pomona, Neospora caninum , Sarcocystis neurona , and Toxoplasma gondii . Positive titers were found against Brucella spp., phocine distemper virus, seal herpesvirus-1, L. bratislava, L. hardjo, and L. icterohemorrhagiae. All titers were stable or declining except in one animal with an increasing titer for seal herpesvirus-1. Fecal pathogen screenings identified normal flora as well as stable or declining low levels of potentially pathogenic and opportunistic bacteria, though most were of little concern for seal health. In most animals, toxicology screening showed that the majority of tested contaminants were below detectable limits. The level of evidence of exposure to pathogens of concern was low in harbor seals. Although the infectious disease burden and contaminant levels in belugas in Cook Inlet cannot be definitively determined without direct testing, pathogen and contaminant exposure is expected to be similar to that found in harbor seals in this region, as the harbor seals and belugas share the habitat and food resources.

Carriage of Clostridium perfringens by benthic crabs in a sewage-polluted estuary

The Estuary of Bahía Blanca (EBB), Argentina, is an important wetland under intense sewage pollution. We investigated the occurrence of Clostridium perfringens (CP) in populations of two benthic crabs (Neohelice granulata and Cyrtograpsus angulatus) and in sediment from the EBB. CP was found in 49.1% of the crabs and all of the isolates were identified as type A. The alpha (cpa) and enterotoxin (cpe) encoding genes were identified. Genetic analyses identified 13 novel sequence types, and found no clustering among isolates, suggesting that CP is not part of the crabs' commensal flora. CP carriage was 51 times more likely in crabs from the area nearest sewage outfalls compared with crabs from a reference site. Our in vitro experiments suggest that the carriage of CP in crabs is transient. The use of these benthic crabs as monitoring organisms of sewage pollution in coastal habitats is proposed.

Tidal and longitudinal variation of faecal indicator bacteria in an estuarine creek in south-east Queensland, Australia

A two-part study conducted in Elimbah Creek, a shallow estuarine waterway in south-east Queensland, Australia, examined the variations in physico-chemical parameters of water quality, chlorophyll a, and faecal indicator bacteria abundances of total coliform, Escherichia coli and enterococci, spatially at high and low tide and also over a 12h tidal cycle. Gradients of increasing faecal indicator bacteria from the mouth to the upper, tidal freshwater reaches were observed, despite isolated peaks during either tidal phase. Phytoplankton biomass (measured as chlorophyll a) did not noticeably increase during the study. Variations in the abundances of all three faecal indicator bacteria and their correlations with physico-chemical parameters indicated that although the creek was likely subject to some level of faecal contamination, tidal movement serves to limit faecal indicator and phytoplankton levels in the creek through physico-chemical stress and dilution. However, each faecal indicator bacteria investigated provided different estimations of faecal contamination, which challenges the effectiveness of employing a single type of faecal indicator bacteria when investigating the level of faecal contamination in waterways.

Multitiered approach using quantitative PCR to track sources of fecal pollution affecting Santa Monica Bay, California

The ubiquity of fecal indicator bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Enterococcus spp. in urban environments makes tracking of fecal contamination extremely challenging. A multitiered approach was used to assess sources of fecal pollution in Ballona Creek, an urban watershed that drains to the Santa Monica Bay (SMB) near Los Angeles, Calif. A mass-based design at six main-stem sites and four major tributaries over a 6-h period was used (i) to assess the flux of Enterococcus spp. and E. coli by using culture-based methods (tier 1); (ii) to assess levels of Enterococcus spp. by using quantitative PCR and to detect and/or quantify additional markers of human fecal contamination, including a human-specific Bacteroides sp. marker and enterovirus, using quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR (tier 2); and (iii) to assess the specific types of enterovirus genomes found via sequence analysis (tier 3). Sources of fecal indicator bacteria were ubiquitous, and concentrations were high, throughout Ballona Creek, with no single tributary dominating fecal inputs. The flux of Enterococcus spp. and E. coli averaged 10(9) to 10(10) cells h(-1) and was as high at the head of the watershed as at the mouth prior to discharge into the SMB. In addition, a signal for the human-specific Bacteroides marker was consistently detected: 86% of the samples taken over the extent during the study period tested positive. Enteroviruses were quantifiable in 14 of 36 samples (39%), with the highest concentrations at the site furthest upstream (Cochran). These results indicated the power of using multiple approaches to assess and quantify fecal contamination in freshwater conduits to high-use, high-priority recreational swimming areas.

Extracellular sensors and extracellular alarmones, which permit cross-talk between organisms, determine the levels of alkali tolerance and trigger alkaliinduced acid sensitivity in Escherichia coli

For several stress responses in Escherichia coli, switching on involves conversion by the stress of an extracellular stress sensor (an extracellular sensing component, ESC) to an extracellular induction component (EIC), the latter functioning as an alarmone and inducing the response. The aim of this study was to establish whether alkali tolerance induction at pH 9.0, alkali sensitisation induced at pH 5.5 and the acid sensitisation induced at pH 9.0 involve sensing of pH changes by ESCs. The techniques involved made use of studies with cell-free culture filtrates. With respect to the inducible responses under test, these filtrates were prepared either from induced or uninduced cultures and filtrates from uninduced cultures were also activated in vitro, by the pH stress, in the absence of bacteria. Tests were then made to examine whether EICs (known to be needed for all these systems) are formed by activation, at the appropriate pH values, of filtrates from pH 7.0-grown cultures (i.e. uninduced culture filtrates); appearance of an EIC on activation would indicate the presence in the uninduced culture filtrate of an ESC. The studies showed that all three systems use ESCs to detect pH changes. Tests involving attempted enzymic and physical inactivation of the ESCs, and attempted removal of the ESCs by dialysis, showed that the ESC involved in alkali sensitisation is a small very heat-resistant protein. Strikingly, protease only partially inactivated the ESCs needed for alkali tolerance induction and for acid sensitisation; each system may be complex, involving both protein and non-protein (RNA?) ESCs, although other explanations are possible. It was also established that appropriate killed cultures can induce all three responses when incubated with pH 7.0-grown living cultures. The occurrence of ESC/EIC pairs for these three responses has led to the evolution of early warning systems for each, the diffusibility of the EICs, and their interaction with non-producers, allowing them to act pheromonally, inducing sensitive organisms to stress tolerance, prior to exposure to stressor.

Distribution of enteric bacteria in Antarctic seawater surrounding the Port-aux-Français permanent station (Kerguelen Island)

Untreated sewage has been released from Port-aux Français station, Kerguelen Island, into the Southern Ocean for more than 50 years. We investigated the spatial distribution of faecal bacteria indicators during a one-year survey conducted in seawater off Morbihan Bay near the French permanent station of the Kerguelen Island (49 degrees 21(')S, 70 degrees 30(')E). Seawater samples were taken bimonthly from nine stations evenly distributed around the sewage outfalls of the station. Escherichia coli and enterococci were estimated using specific microplates (Miniaturized method for the enumeration of E. coli or enterococci in surface and waste waters, "MU/EC or MU/SF methods", BIO-RAD( Copyright)). In order to evaluate the role of seasonal changes of environmental parameters on the survival of enteric bacteria, total and saprophytic bacterial abundances were also estimated in all seawater samples. High densities of faecal bacteria (maximum 10(4) cells 100 ml(-1)) were found in seawater surrounding the sewage outfall. However, enteric bacterial counts decreased rapidly with increasing distance from the outfall. In all samples collected further than 2 km from the outfall, the bacterial indicators were absent or present in small numbers (<10 cells 100 ml(-1)). Faecal coliforms were not detected in samples collected at pristine sites located 10 km from Port-aux-Français. Despite these low contamination levels, faecal bacteria were always detected in the vicinity of the sewage outfall during the seasonal survey. The concentration of faecal bacteria may be related to the number of people inhabiting the station.

Extracellular proteins as enterobacterial thermometers

Biological thermometers are cellular components or structures which sense increasing temperatures, interaction of the thermometer and the thermal stress bringing about the switching-on of inducible responses, with gradually enhanced levels of response induction following gradually increasing temperatures. In enterobacteria, for studies of such thermometers, generally induction of heat shock protein (HSP) synthesis has been examined, with experimental studies aiming to establish (often indirectly) how the temperature changes which initiate HSP synthesis are sensed; numerous other processes and responses show graded induction as temperature is increased, and how the temperature changes which induce these are sensed is also of interest. Several classes of intracellular component and structure have been proposed as enterobacterial thermometers, with the ribosome and the DnaK chaperone being the most favoured, although for many of the proposed intracellular thermometers, most of the evidence for their functioning in this way is indirect. In contrast to the above, the studies reviewed here firmly establish that for four distinct stress responses, which are switched-on gradually as temperature increases, temperature changes are sensed by extracellular components (extracellular sensing components, ESCs) i.e. there is firm and direct evidence for the occurrence of extracellular thermometers. All four thermometers described here are proteins, which appear to be distinct and different from each other, and on sensing thermal stress are activated by it to four distinct extracellular induction components (EICs), which interact with receptors on the surface of organisms to induce the appropriate responses. It is predicted that many other temperature-induced processes, including the synthesis of HSPs, will be switched-on following the activation of similar extracellular thermometers by thermal stimuli.

UV radiation-induced enterobacterial responses, other processes that influence UV tolerance and likely environmental significance

The ability of enterobacteria to become UV-tolerant is important because such tolerance may enable organisms to resist irradiation in the environment, in water treatment, in shell-fish, in stages of food processing, and at locations in the domestic, commercial and hospital environment The mechanism for regulation of tolerance induction and SOS response induction has been studied for many years, and is well understood, except for the early stages of induction. Such early stages, namely sensing of the stimulus (UV irradiation) and the way in which such sensing leads to signal production, have until now been poorly understood. The claim has been made that DNA is the sensor and that either damage to DNA or production of SS regions in DNA (following interaction of UV with DNA) triggers the signal that sets in train RecA activation and other stages of tolerance induction. This claimed induction mechanism is a "classical" one in the sense that it involves intracellular sensing (by DNA) of the stressing stimulus (UV), and production of an intracellular signalling molecule. It is not, however, firmly established as the mechanism for initiation of UV tolerance induction and SOS response induction. The results reviewed here give firm evidence for a different and unique mechanism for sensing of UV and production of the signal. These results establish without doubt that, for UV tolerance induction, the UV sensor is an extracellular protein, which is a UV tolerance-specific extracellular sensing component (ESC). This component is formed by unstressed cells and on interacting with the stimulus (UV) in the medium, is converted to the tolerance induction signalling molecule, which is a UV tolerance-specific extracellular induction component (EIC). It is this extracellular signal which interacts with the sensitive organisms and triggers tolerance induction. This pair of extracellular components (ECs) may offer the only means of switching-on such tolerance induction; certainly they offer the only known way for early warning to be given of impending UV challenge. Thus, the EIC can diffuse from a region of UV stress to a stress-free region and there warn organisms of impending stress and prepare them to resist it. As indicated here, UV irradiation not only induces UV tolerance, but also switches-on acid tolerance, alkali tolerance and thermotolerance responses. The fact that all three responses involve ESC/EIC pairs strongly supports the view that functioning of such EC pairs form the major, if not the only, means for UV tolerance induction. The UV tolerance-specific ESC can detect other stresses and becomes activated, leading to cross-tolerance responses. Of particular interest, this ESC acts as a biological thermometer, detecting increases in temperature, such increases leading to gradually increasing formation of the EIC and, accordingly, gradual increases in UV tolerance. This UV tolerance-specific ESC can also detect other stresses e.g. acting as a pH sensor. In all cases, on activation, the EIC formed (from this specific ESC) only induces UV tolerance. It is proposed that the interaction of EICs with stress-sensitive organisms should be examined, and it is suggested that such EICs may, directly or indirectly, interact with and activate the same stress response regulators as are used to detect internal stressors and which, on activation, also trigger the switching-on of stress responses. For example, EICs either a in a protonated or oxidised state (formed by activation of ESCs by H+ or H2O2) or b produced by irradiation, may lead to protonation or oxidation or other forms of activation of the appropriate regulator (e.g. Fur or OxyR or RecA etc), leading to response induction.

How killed enterobacterial cultures can activate living organisms to resist lethal agents or conditions

A major aim in many areas of microbiology is to ensure sterility, and even where this is impossible, to reduce the number of viable organisms occurring in particular environments to an absolute minimum. This applies in the aquatic environment, where e.g. water treatment must ensure as complete absence of viable microbes as possible. It is also crucial in food processing and production; many food constituents contain appreciable numbers of viable organisms, even potential pathogens, and the number must be greatly reduced and in many situations, the presence of viable organisms totally abolished. Cleaning of food production components and surfaces must also kill associated microbes. In domestic, hospital and commercial situations, similar disinfection is critical. Ultimately, the aim is to ensure, if possible, sterility, with the assurance that microbial problems cannot occur if organisms are absent. Additionally, however, it has been implicitly assumed that killed organisms and even killed cultures cannot (except in minor and trivial ways) influence the behaviour of living organisms that later enter the environment. The work reviewed here challenges that view and in fact disproves it. The findings described show that killed enterobacterial cultures, which prior to killing had phenotypically gained the ability to resist potentially lethal stresses, can pass on such ability to living organisms that later enter their environment i.e. that such killed cultures can convey a baleful legacy to living ones. This phenomenon is so widespread that it is clear that it has significance for enterobacterial survival in natural waters, in foods and in food production, in the domestic, commercial and hospital situation, and in the animal and human body. In fact, in this last area, the likely effect of killed cultures appears to be of appreciable public health importance. Here, the ability of appropriate killed cultures to transfer tolerance to acidity, alkalinity and thermal stress is described, as well as their ability to pass on sensitisation to acid and alkali. Other work reviewed suggests that killed cultures can almost certainly transfer the ability to tolerate hydrogen peroxide, ultraviolet irradiation and metal ions. The serious implications of this phenomenon are further emphasised by the fact that numerous killing methods produce cultures effective in tolerance response transfer. All the evidence suggests that it is extracellular components (extracellular sensing components, ESCs, and extracellular induction components, EICs), in the killed cultures which are involved in stress response transfer, and that the actual stress response induction process depends on interaction of living organisms with EICs from the killed cultures. It is of note that ESCs and EICs survive in killed cultures because of their extreme resistance to irreversible inactivation by lethal levels of stressing agents and conditions. This is in contrast to the fact that EC activation, namely the conversion of ESC to EIC occurs on exposure to very low levels of stressors. Not only is this the case, but in fact high levels of stressors (e.g. those that kill organisms) generally fail to convert ESC to EIC.

Extracellular sensing components and extracellular induction component alarmones give early warning against stress in Escherichia coli

The work reported here follows from the proposal that, for efficient induction of numerous extracellular stress responses, cultures contain extracellular stress-sensing molecules, termed extracellular sensing components (ESCs). These are directly converted to extracellular induction components (EICs) by stresses, thus providing an early warning system against stress, with very rapid responses occurring on exposure to increasing levels of stress. Although some stress responses appear to involve activation of intracellular sensors, the proposed ESCs and EICs function for many stress tolerance and sensitization responses and for several cross-tolerance and cross-sensitization responses. Because EICs can induce responses in unstressed cells, and because they are small molecules that can diffuse away from the site of formation, they can be considered to be 'alarmones', both warning unstressed organisms of future stress and preparing both stressed and unstressed ones to resist it. Therefore, EICs produced by one group of organisms could affect another group i.e. there could be 'cross-talk' (cell-to-cell communication) with other organisms in an area, to which the EICs diffuse, that has not yet faced the stress. In particular, stimuli that switch on acid tolerance, alkali tolerance, pH sensitization responses and alkylhydroperoxide tolerance are detected by ESCs; these molecules can give rise to EICs in the presence of the stress without organisms needing to be present. Not only does the ESC-EIC interconversion allow rapid switching on of responses, but for some responses it also allows rapid switching off. For some ESCs, the sensor can be modified by the culture conditions, modification leading to altered responsiveness to stress; such sensor changes appear to have evolved to allow the most efficient responses to stress to occur, under defined sets of conditions. In addition, the receptors on the organisms that interact with EICs are modified by culture conditions, so that extracellular components that function as ESCs for some cultures can act as EICs for others. In view of their role in early warning of stress, EICs and ESCs are likely to have important functions in the natural environment, especially in natural waters, in foods and food preparation and production, in hospital, domestic and commercial locations, and in the animal and human body. Findings of major importance relate to the extreme stress tolerance of some EICs. For example, because the acid-tolerance EIC formed at pH 5.0 is a heat-resistant molecule, heat-killed suspensions of acid-tolerant cultures can confer acid tolerance on living E. coli; cultures killed by extreme acidity and alkalinity and by exposure to high levels of UV irradiation or novobiocin are also able to confer acid tolerance on living E. coli. Extracellular components that inhibit induction of stress responses also occur in enterobacteria, since it has been found that AMP and HCO3-, which inhibit acid-tolerance induction, do so by forming extracellular agents that block the functioning of EICs. Similar agents to the above EICs and ESCs may occur in other non-stress-related processes. Systems using these extracellular components are quite distinct in their properties from quorum-sensing systems in Gram-negative bacteria and from those systems that use small peptides in intercellular communication and which induce virulence-related enzyme synthesis in Staphylococcus aureus and competence in streptococci and bacilli. Additionally, probably because the ESCs have evolved to become modified by cultural conditions, the components in the stress-related systems, although relatively small proteins, are much larger than the extracellular components used in the quorum-sensing processes and related systems. It is possible that the extracellular 'protectants' of Nikolaev, which protect E. coli from stress, act similarly to the EICs described here, e.g. by inducing stress tolerance. The antimutagenic factor of Vorobjeva may act similarly, although there is no evidence, so far, to suggest that it acts by inducing tolerance to mutagens.

Extracellular sensing and signalling pheromones switch-on thermotolerance and other stress responses in Escherichia coli

The findings reviewed here overturn a major tenet of bacterial physiology, namely that stimuli which switch-on inducible responses are always detected by intracellular sensors, with all other components and stages in induction also being intracellular. Such an induction mechanism even applies to quorum-sensed responses, and some others which involve functioning of extracellular components, and had previously been believed to occur in all cases. In contrast, for the stress responses reviewed here, triggering is by a quite distinct process, pairs of extracellular components being involved, with the stress sensing component (the extracellular sensing component, ESC) and the signalling component, which derives from it and induces the stress (the extracellular induction component, EIC), being extracellular and the stimulus detection occurring in the growth medium. The ESCs and EICs can also be referred to as extracellular sensing and signalling pheromones, since they are not only needed for induction in the stressed culture, but can act as pheromones in the same region activating other organisms which fail to produce the extracellular component (EC) pair. They can also diffuse to other regions and there act as pheromones influencing unstressed organisms or those which fail to produce such ECs. The cross-talk occurring due to such interactions, can then switch-on stress responses in such unstressed organisms and in those which cannot form the ESC/EIC pair. Accordingly, the ESC/EIC pairs can bring about a form of intercellular communication between organisms. If the unstressed organisms, which are induced to stress tolerance by such extracellular components, are facing impending stress challenge, then the pheromonal activities of the ECs provide an early warning system against stress. The specific ESC/EIC pairs switch-on numerous responses; often these pairs are proteins, but non-protein ECs also occur and for a few systems, full induction needs two ESC/EIC pairs. Most of the above ECs needed for response induction are highly resistant to irreversible inactivation by lethal agents and conditions and, accordingly, many killed cultures still contain ESCs or EICs. If these killed cultures come into contact with unstressed living organisms, the ECs again act pheromonally, altering the tolerance to stress of the living organisms. It has been claimed that bacteria sense increased temperature using ribosomes or the DnaK gene product. The work reviewed here shows that, for thermal triggering of thermotolerance and acid tolerance in E. coli, it is ESCs which act as thermometers.

Distribution of Clostridium perfringens and fecal sterols in a benthic coastal marine environment influenced by the sewage outfall from McMurdo Station, Antarctica

The spatial distribution, movement, and impact of the untreated wastewater outfall from McMurdo Station, Antarctica, were investigated under early austral summer conditions. The benthic environment was examined to determine the distribution of Clostridium perfringens in sediment cores and the intestinal contents of native invertebrates and fish along a transect of stations. These stations extended ca. 411 m south of the outfall. The findings revealed that the concentration of C. perfringens decreased with depth in the sediment and distance from the outfall. High percentages of tunicates and sea urchins were colonized with this bacterium along the transect. Coprostanol concentrations were also measured in sediment samples taken from each of the transect stations, and a similar trend was observed. These results are in agreement with the findings of previous studies performed with the water column and collectively provide evidence that the disposal of domestic wastes deserves special consideration in polar marine environments.

Limited MHC polymorphism in the southern elephant seal: implications for MHC evolution and marine mammal population biology

Genes of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) are highly polymorphic in most terrestrial mammal populations so far studied. Exceptions to this are typically populations that lack genome-wide diversity. Here I show that two populations of the southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina) have low DNA restriction fragment length polymorphism at MHC loci when compared with terrestrial mammals. Limited studies on MHC polymorphism in two cetacean species suggest this is a feature of marine mammal populations in general. MHC polymorphism is thought to be maintained by balancing selection, and several types of disease-based and reproductive-based mechanisms have been proposed. For the three marine mammal species examined, the low MHC polymorphism cannot be explained by low genome-wide diversity, or by any reproductive-based selection pressure. It can, however, be explained by diminished exposure to pathogenic selection pressure compared with terrestrial mammals. Reduced exposure to pathogens would also mean that marine mammal populations may be susceptible to occasional pathogen-induced mass mortalities.

Factors affecting the determination of respiratory activity on the basis of cyanoditolyl tetrazolium chloride reduction with membrane filtration

Deficiencies in traditional bacterial enumeration techniques which rely on colony formation have led to the use of total direct counting methods, such as the acridine orange direct count technique for the enumeration of planktonic bacteria. As total direct counts provide no information on the viability or activity of the organisms, demonstration of respiratory activity with the fluorochrome cyanoditolyl tetrazolium chloride (CTC) has been employed. We have modified this technique by performing filtration prior to CTC incubation. Cells captured on a polycarbonate membrane were incubated on absorbent pads saturated with medium containing CTC. Following counterstaining with DAPI (4(prm1),6-diamidino-2-phenylindole) total and respiring cells were enumerated by epifluorescence microscopy. Factors affecting CTC reduction by Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella typhimurium, and Escherichia coli K-12 were investigated. With K. pneumoniae, nutrient additions to the CTC medium did not increase the number of respiring cells detected. CTC reduction by all three organisms decreased in response to an increase of the pH of the CTC medium above pH 6.5. Increasing phosphate concentrations contributed to this inhibitory effect. CTC-membrane filter counts of K. pneumoniae, S. typhimurium, and E. coli K-12 and of bacteria in well water corresponded closely with plate counts (r = 0.987). The results show that careful attention should be given to the composition of CTC-containing media which are used to enumerate respiring bacteria. With an appropriate medium, reliable enumeration of respiring bacteria can be achieved within a few hours.

A rapid, direct method for enumerating respiring enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 in water

Simple, rapid methods for the detection and enumeration of specific bacteria in water and wastewater are needed. We have combined incubation using cyanoditolyl tetrazolium chloride (CTC) to detect respiratory activity with a modified fluorescent-antibody (FA) technique, for the enumeration of specific viable bacteria. Bacteria in suspensions were captured by filtration on nonfluorescent polycarbonate membranes that were then incubated on absorbent pads saturated with CTC medium. A specific antibody conjugated with fluorescein isothiocyanate was reacted with the cells on the membrane filter. The membrane filters were mounted for examination by epifluorescence microscopy with optical filters designed to permit concurrent visualization of fluorescent red-orange CTC-formazan crystals in respiring cells which were also stained with the specific FA. Experiments with Escherichia coli O157:H7 indicated that both respiratory activity and specific FA staining could be detected in logarithmic- or stationary-phase cultures, as well as in cells suspended in M9 medium or reverse-osmosis water. Following incubation without added nutrients in M9 medium or unsterile reverse-osmosis water, the E. coli O157:H7 populations increased, although lower proportions of the organisms reduced CTC. Numbers of CTC-positive, FA-positive cells compared with R2A agar plate counts gave a strong linear regression (R = 0.997). Differences in injury did not appear to affect CTC reduction. The procedure, which can be completed within 3 to 4 h, has also been performed successfully with Salmonella typhimurium and Klebsiella pneumoniae.

Distribution of enteric bacteria in Antarctic seawater surrounding a sewage outfall

The spatial distribution and movement of the sewage plume from McMurdo Station, Antarctica, was investigated in the ocean under the early summer sea ice. Ocean currents were also examined to determine their effect on the movement of the plume. Samples of sea water were obtained via holes drilled through the ice and analyzed for coliform bacteria. Coliform densities in ice cores were also determined. Densities of coliform bacteria as high as 10(5)/100 ml were found along the c. 1 km shoreline of McMurdo Station and the plume extended 200-300 m seaward. The relocation of the outfall from a surface configuration to the subsurface (11 m deep) had little influence on the distribution of the plume that sometimes reached the seawater intake station, 400 m to the south. Ocean current measurements in the study area confirmed that, while the prevailing advection was to the north and away from the intake area, episodic reversals of flow at some current meter stations coincided with pulses of sewage that moved to the intake. These findings support the use of bacterial indicators as one means to map the distribution and movement of recent sewage contamination in cold (-1.8 degrees C) sea water and provide evidence that the disposal and movement of domestic wastes deserves attention in coastal [correction of costal] polar environments.

RecA-independent resistance to irradiation with u.v. light in acid-habituated Escherichia coli

Growth of Escherichia coli 1829 ColV, I-K94 at pH 5.0 led to an increase in u.v. resistance compared with cells grown at pH 7.0. This was due to a phenotypic change, since organisms grown at pH 7.0 showed increased resistance after only 2.5-5.0 min incubation at the mildly acid pH. Other E. coli K12 derivatives became more u.v.-resistant at pH 5.0 including uvrA, recA and polA1 mutants. Organisms grown at pH 5.0 also showed increased Weigle reactivation of u.v.-irradiated lambda phage and this applied to the repair-deficient mutants as well as the parent strains. Both the increased u.v. resistance of acid-habituated cells and their increased ability to bring about Weigle reactivation appear to involve RecA-independent processes and are presumably, therefore, independent of the SOS response.

An improved procedure for shipboard enumeration of faecal indicator bacteria in marine sediments from sewage sludge disposal areas

An improved membrane filtration procedure for use on board ship to enumerate Escherichia coli and Group D faecal streptococci in marine sediments is described. Ultrasonication extraction combined with resuscitation of sublethally-injured cells yielded significantly higher counts of E. coli than sediments shaken by hand. Counts of E. coli were also higher on mFC agar (without rosalic acid) after a period of resuscitation on tryptone-soy agar supplemented with 0.1% yeast extract than on a 4% Teepol-lactose medium. Ultrasonication of sediments made no significant difference to counts of Group D faecal streptococci on KF-streptococcus agar. These improved isolation procedures allowed better discrimination of the area affected by sewage sludge at a disposal site off the northeast coast of England.

Resistance of attached Escherichia coli to acrylic acid and its significance for the survival of plasmid-bearing organisms in water

As previously reported, free organisms of Escherichia coli are sensitive to damage and killing when exposed to acrylic acid in water. The effect of the agent was greatest in distilled water, but there was a marked effect in effluent and seawater also. The effect was temperature-dependent, with organisms exposed at 4 degrees C being much less affected than those exposed at 20 degrees C. The above sensitivity was for free organisms, but those attached to glass beads were resistant to acrylate. This resistance applied equally to attached plasmid-free and attached plasmid-bearing organisms, but is likely to be more significant for plasmid-bearing strains because some plasmids studied here stimulated bacterial attachment. The likely significance of the acrylate resistance of attached organisms for enterobacterial survival in the aquatic environment, e.g. in the vicinity of shellfish beds, is discussed.