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Barbuti MD, Lambert E, Myrbråten IS, Ducret A, Stamsås GA, Wilhelm L, Liu X, Salehian Z, Veening JW, Straume D, Grangeasse C, Perez C, Kjos M. The function of CozE proteins is linked to lipoteichoic acid biosynthesis in Staphylococcus aureus. mBio 2024; 15:e0115724. [PMID: 38757970 PMCID: PMC11237490 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01157-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/21/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Coordinated membrane and cell wall synthesis is vital for maintaining cell integrity and facilitating cell division in bacteria. However, the molecular mechanisms that underpin such coordination are poorly understood. Here we uncover the pivotal roles of the staphylococcal proteins CozEa and CozEb, members of a conserved family of membrane proteins previously implicated in bacterial cell division, in the biosynthesis of lipoteichoic acids (LTA) and maintenance of membrane homeostasis in Staphylococcus aureus. We establish that there is a synthetic lethal relationship between CozE and UgtP, the enzyme synthesizing the LTA glycolipid anchor Glc2DAG. By contrast, in cells lacking LtaA, the flippase of Glc2DAG, the essentiality of CozE proteins was alleviated, suggesting that the function of CozE proteins is linked to the synthesis and flipping of the glycolipid anchor. CozE proteins were indeed found to modulate the flipping activity of LtaA in vitro. Furthermore, CozEb was shown to control LTA polymer length and stability. Together, these findings establish CozE proteins as novel players in membrane homeostasis and LTA biosynthesis in S. aureus.IMPORTANCELipoteichoic acids are major constituents of the cell wall of Gram-positive bacteria. These anionic polymers are important virulence factors and modulators of antibiotic susceptibility in the important pathogen Staphylococcus aureus. They are also critical for maintaining cell integrity and facilitating proper cell division. In this work, we discover that a family of membrane proteins named CozE is involved in the biosynthesis of lipoteichoic acids (LTAs) in S. aureus. CozE proteins have previously been shown to affect bacterial cell division, but we here show that these proteins affect LTA length and stability, as well as the flipping of glycolipids between membrane leaflets. This new mechanism of LTA control may thus have implications for the virulence and antibiotic susceptibility of S. aureus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Disen Barbuti
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | | | - Ine Storaker Myrbråten
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | - Adrien Ducret
- Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry, CNRS UM 5086, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Gro Anita Stamsås
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | - Linus Wilhelm
- Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry, CNRS UM 5086, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Xue Liu
- Department of Pathogen, Biology, International Cancer Center, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
- Department of Fundamental Microbiology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Zhian Salehian
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | - Jan-Willem Veening
- Department of Fundamental Microbiology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Straume
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | - Christophe Grangeasse
- Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry, CNRS UM 5086, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Camilo Perez
- Biozentrum, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Morten Kjos
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
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Joyce LR, Kim S, Spencer BL, Christensen PM, Palmer KL, Guan Z, Siegenthaler JA, Doran KS. Streptococcus agalactiae glycolipids promote virulence by thwarting immune cell clearance. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2024; 10:eadn7848. [PMID: 38809989 PMCID: PMC11135403 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adn7848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2023] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/31/2024]
Abstract
Streptococcus agalactiae [group B Streptococcus (GBS)] is a leading cause of neonatal meningitis, with late-onset disease (LOD) occurring after gastrointestinal tract colonization in infants. Bacterial membrane lipids are essential for host-pathogen interactions, and the functions of glycolipids are yet to be fully elucidated. GBS synthesizes three major glycolipids: glucosyl-diacylglycerol (Glc-DAG), diglucosyl-DAG (Glc2-DAG), and lysyl-Glc-DAG (Lys-Glc-DAG). Here, we identify the enzyme, IagB, as responsible for biosynthesis of Glc-DAG, the precursor for the two other glycolipids in GBS. To examine the collective role of glycolipids to GBS virulence, we adapted a murine model of neonatal meningitis to simulate LOD. The GBS∆iagB mutant traversed the gut-epithelial barrier comparable to wild type but was severely attenuated in bloodstream survival, resulting in decreased bacterial loads in the brain. The GBS∆iagB mutant was more susceptible to neutrophil killing and membrane targeting by host antimicrobial peptides. This work reveals an unexplored function of GBS glycolipids with their ability to protect the bacterial cell from host antimicrobial killing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke R. Joyce
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Sol Kim
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Developmental Biology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Brady L. Spencer
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Priya M. Christensen
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA
| | - Kelli L. Palmer
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA
| | - Ziqiang Guan
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Julie A. Siegenthaler
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Developmental Biology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Kelly S. Doran
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
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Rismondo J, Gründling A. Type I Lipoteichoic Acid (LTA) Purification by Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography and Structural Analysis by 2D Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy. Methods Mol Biol 2024; 2727:107-124. [PMID: 37815712 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3491-2_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/11/2023]
Abstract
Type I lipoteichoic acid (LTA) is a glycerol phosphate polymer found in the cell envelope of diverse Gram-positive bacteria. The glycerol phosphate backbone is often further decorated with D-alanine and/or sugar residues. Here, we provide details of a 1-butanol extraction and purification method of type I LTA by hydrophobic interaction chromatography. The protocol has been adapted from methods originally described by Fischer et al. (Eur J Biochem 133:523-530, 1983) and further optimized by Morath et al. (J Exp Med 193:393-397, 2001). We also present information on a 2D nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analysis method to gain chemical and structural information of the purified LTA material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeanine Rismondo
- Department of General Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, Georg-August University Göttingen, GZMB, Göttingen, Germany.
| | - Angelika Gründling
- Section of Molecular Microbiology and Centre for Bacterial Resistance Biology (CBRB), Imperial College London, London, UK.
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Han J, Zhao X, Zhao X, Li P, Gu Q. Insight into the structure, biosynthesis, isolation method and biological function of teichoic acid in different gram-positive microorganisms: A review. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 253:126825. [PMID: 37696369 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.126825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 09/07/2023] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/13/2023]
Abstract
Teichoic acid (TA) is a weakly anionic polymer present in the cell walls of Gram-positive bacteria. It can be classified into wall teichoic acid (WTA) and lipoteichoic acid (LTA) based on its localization in the cell wall. The structure and biosynthetic pathway of TAs are strain-specific and have a significant role in maintaining cell wall stability. TAs have various beneficial functions, such as immunomodulatory, anticancer and antioxidant activities. However, the purity and yield of TAs are generally not high, and different isolation methods may even affect their structural integrity, which limits the research progress on the probiotic functions of TA. This paper reviews an overview of the structure and biosynthetic pathway of TAs in different strains, as well as the research progress of the isolation and purification methods of TAs. Furthermore, this review also highlights the current research status on the biological functions of TAs. Through a comprehensive understanding of this review, it is expected to pave the way for advancements in isolating and purifying high-quality TAs and, in turn, lay a foundation for contributing to the development of targeted probiotic therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiarun Han
- Key Laboratory for Food Microbial Technology of Zhejiang Province, College of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, People's Republic of China
| | - Xin Zhao
- Key Laboratory for Food Microbial Technology of Zhejiang Province, College of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, People's Republic of China
| | - Xilian Zhao
- Key Laboratory for Food Microbial Technology of Zhejiang Province, College of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, People's Republic of China
| | - Ping Li
- Key Laboratory for Food Microbial Technology of Zhejiang Province, College of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, People's Republic of China
| | - Qing Gu
- Key Laboratory for Food Microbial Technology of Zhejiang Province, College of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, People's Republic of China.
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Wang M, Sun M, Zhao Y, Shi Y, Sun S, Wang S, Zhou Y, Chen L. Seasonal changes of soil microbiota and its association with environmental factors in coal mining subsidence area. AMB Express 2023; 13:147. [PMID: 38123764 PMCID: PMC10733236 DOI: 10.1186/s13568-023-01653-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2023] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND As a special type of wetland, the new wetland in the coal mining subsidence area is highly sensitive to environmental changes. In recent years, more and more attention has been paid to the studies of soil microbial diversity in newly born wetlands in coal mining subsidence areas. However, there are few reports on the seasonal variation of soil microbial diversity and its relationship with soil physical and chemical properties. METHODS In this study, 16S rRNA gene sequencing technology was used to analyze the seasonal changes of soil microbial composition and functional diversity in newly formed wetlands in coal mining subsidence areas, and to determine the seasonal changes of soil nutrient elements and physical and chemical properties in coal mining subsidence areas, so as to analyze the correlation between soil microbial diversity and soil nutrient elements and physical and chemical properties in newly formed wetlands in coal mining subsidence areas. RESULTS A total of 16,050 OTUs were obtained after sample gene noise reduction. Proteobacteria, Acidobacteriota and Bacteroidota were the highest abundance in the coal mining subsidence area of Jining. The two seasons gathered separately, and temperature (Temp), total phosphorus (TP), available phosphorus (AP), total organic carbon (TOC) and dry matter content (DMC) were the key factors for the seasonal change of soil microbial community in the wetland of the coal mining subsidence area of Jining. The contents of Temp, AP and TP were significantly correlated with the abundance of soil microorganisms in summer subsidence area, while the contents of DMC and TOC were significantly correlated with the abundance of soil microorganisms in winter subsidence area. CONCLUSION Soil microbial diversity in coal mining subsidence area was correlated with the seasons. Temp, TP, AP, TOC and DMC were the key factors for the seasonal change of soil microbial community in the wetland of the coal mining subsidence area of Jining.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng Wang
- Technology Innovation Center of Restoration and Reclamation in Mining induced Subsidence Land, Shandong Provincial Lunan Geology and Exploration Institute (Shandong Provincial Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, Ministry of Natural Resources of China, No.2 Geological Brigade), Jining, 272000, China
| | - Mengyao Sun
- College of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu, Shandong Province, China
| | - Yue Zhao
- College of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu, Shandong Province, China
| | - Yuying Shi
- College of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu, Shandong Province, China
| | - Shuo Sun
- College of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu, Shandong Province, China
| | - Shen Wang
- College of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu, Shandong Province, China
| | - Yiping Zhou
- College of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu, Shandong Province, China
| | - Lei Chen
- College of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu, Shandong Province, China.
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Ruiz-Cruz S, Sadovskaya I, Mahony J, Grard T, Chapot-Chartier MP, van Sinderen D, Vinogradov E. Structural studies of the deacylated glycolipids and lipoteichoic acid of Lactococcus cremoris 3107. Carbohydr Res 2023; 531:108898. [PMID: 37453325 DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2023.108898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
Lactococcus cremoris and Lactococcus lactis are among the most extensively exploited species of lactic acid bacteria in dairy fermentations. The cell wall of lactococci, like other Gram-positive bacteria, possesses a thick peptidoglycan layer, which may incorporate cell wall polysaccharides (CWPS), wall teichoic acids (WTA), and/or lipoteichoic acids (LTA). In this study, we report the isolation, purification and structural analysis of the carbohydrate moieties of glycolipids (GL) and LTA of the L. cremoris model strain 3107. Chemical structures of these compounds were studied by chemical methods, NMR spectroscopy and positive and negative mode ESI MS. We found that the LTA of strain 3107 is composed of short chains of 1,3-polyglycerol phosphate (PGP), attached to O-6 of the non-reducing glucose of the kojibiose-Gro backbone of the glycolipid anchor. Extraction of cells with cold TCA afforded the detection of 1,3-glycerol phosphate chains randomly substituted at O-2 of glycerol by D-Ala. Unlike the LTA of L. lactis strains studied to date, the PGP backbone of the LTA of L. cremoris 3107 did not carry any glycosyl substitution. The deacylated glycolipid fraction contained the free kojibiose-Gro oligosaccharide, identical to the backbone of the GL anchor of LTA, and its shorter fragment α-Glc-1-Gro. These OS may have originated from the GL precursors of LTA biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofía Ruiz-Cruz
- School of Microbiology and APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork, T12 YT20, Ireland
| | - Irina Sadovskaya
- Univ. Littoral Côte d'Opale, UMRt 1158 BioEcoAgro, USC ANSES, INRAe, Univ. Artois, Univ. Lille, Univ. Picardie Jules Verne, Univ. Liège, Junia, F-62200, Boulogne-sur-Mer, France
| | - Jennifer Mahony
- School of Microbiology and APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork, T12 YT20, Ireland
| | - Thierry Grard
- Univ. Littoral Côte d'Opale, UMRt 1158 BioEcoAgro, USC ANSES, INRAe, Univ. Artois, Univ. Lille, Univ. Picardie Jules Verne, Univ. Liège, Junia, F-62200, Boulogne-sur-Mer, France
| | | | - Douwe van Sinderen
- School of Microbiology and APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork, T12 YT20, Ireland
| | - Evguenii Vinogradov
- National Research Council Canada, 100 Sussex Dr, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0R6, Canada.
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Zhang B, Phetsang W, Stone MRL, Kc S, Butler MS, Cooper MA, Elliott AG, Łapińska U, Voliotis M, Tsaneva-Atanasova K, Pagliara S, Blaskovich MAT. Synthesis of vancomycin fluorescent probes that retain antimicrobial activity, identify Gram-positive bacteria, and detect Gram-negative outer membrane damage. Commun Biol 2023; 6:409. [PMID: 37055536 PMCID: PMC10102067 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-023-04745-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 04/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance is an urgent threat to human health, and new antibacterial drugs are desperately needed, as are research tools to aid in their discovery and development. Vancomycin is a glycopeptide antibiotic that is widely used for the treatment of Gram-positive infections, such as life-threatening systemic diseases caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Here we demonstrate that modification of vancomycin by introduction of an azide substituent provides a versatile intermediate that can undergo copper-catalysed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) reaction with various alkynes to readily prepare vancomycin fluorescent probes. We describe the facile synthesis of three probes that retain similar antibacterial profiles to the parent vancomycin antibiotic. We demonstrate the versatility of these probes for the detection and visualisation of Gram-positive bacteria by a range of methods, including plate reader quantification, flow cytometry analysis, high-resolution microscopy imaging, and single cell microfluidics analysis. In parallel, we demonstrate their utility in measuring outer-membrane permeabilisation of Gram-negative bacteria. The probes are useful tools that may facilitate detection of infections and development of new antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Zhang
- Centre for Superbug Solutions, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Wanida Phetsang
- Centre for Superbug Solutions, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - M Rhia L Stone
- Centre for Superbug Solutions, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Sanjaya Kc
- Centre for Superbug Solutions, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Mark S Butler
- Centre for Superbug Solutions, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Matthew A Cooper
- Centre for Superbug Solutions, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Alysha G Elliott
- Centre for Superbug Solutions, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Urszula Łapińska
- Living Systems Institute, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter, EX4 4QD, UK
- Biosciences, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter, EX4 4Q, UK
| | - Margaritis Voliotis
- Living Systems Institute, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter, EX4 4QD, UK
- Department of Mathematics, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter, UK
| | - Krasimira Tsaneva-Atanasova
- Living Systems Institute, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter, EX4 4QD, UK
- Department of Mathematics, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter, UK
- EPSRC Hub for Quantitative Modelling in Healthcare, University of Exeter, Exeter, EX4 4QJ, UK
- Department of Bioinformatics and Mathematical Modelling, Institute of Biophysics and Biomedical Engineering, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 105 Acad. G. Bonchev Street, 1113, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Stefano Pagliara
- Living Systems Institute, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter, EX4 4QD, UK
- Biosciences, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter, EX4 4Q, UK
| | - Mark A T Blaskovich
- Centre for Superbug Solutions, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia.
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Remodeling of the Enterococcal Cell Envelope during Surface Penetration Promotes Intrinsic Resistance to Stress. mBio 2022; 13:e0229422. [PMID: 36354750 PMCID: PMC9765498 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02294-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Enterococcus faecalis is a normal commensal of the human gastrointestinal tract (GIT). However, upon disruption of gut homeostasis, this nonmotile bacterium can egress from its natural niche and spread to distal organs. While this translocation process can lead to life-threatening systemic infections, the underlying mechanisms remain largely unexplored. Our prior work showed that E. faecalis migration across diverse surfaces requires the formation of matrix-covered multicellular aggregates and the synthesis of exopolysaccharides, but how enterococcal cells are reprogrammed during this process is unknown. Whether surface penetration endows E. faecalis with adaptive advantages is also uncertain. Here, we report that surface penetration promotes the generation of a metabolically and phenotypically distinct E. faecalis population with an enhanced capacity to endure various forms of extracellular stress. Surface-invading enterococci demonstrated major ultrastructural alterations in their cell envelope characterized by increased membrane glycolipid content. These changes were accompanied by marked induction of specific transcriptional programs enhancing cell envelope biogenesis and glycolipid metabolism. Notably, the surface-invading population demonstrated superior tolerance to membrane-damaging antimicrobials, including daptomycin and β-defensins produced by epithelial cells. Genetic mutations impairing glycolipid biosynthesis sensitized E. faecalis to envelope stressors and reduced the ability of this bacterium to penetrate semisolid surfaces and translocate through human intestinal epithelial cell monolayers. Our study reveals that surface penetration induces distinct transcriptional, metabolic, and ultrastructural changes that equip E. faecalis with enhanced capacity to resist external stressors and thrive in its surrounding environment. IMPORTANCE Enterococcus faecalis inhabits the GIT of multiple organisms, where its establishment could be mediated by the formation of biofilm-like aggregates. In susceptible individuals, this bacterium can overgrow and breach intestinal barriers, a process that may lead to lethal systemic infections. While the formation of multicellular aggregates promotes E. faecalis migration across surfaces, little is known about the metabolic and physiological states of the enterococci encased in these surface-penetrating structures. The present study reveals that E. faecalis cells capable of migrating through semisolid surfaces genetically reprogram their metabolism toward increased cell envelope and glycolipid biogenesis, which confers superior tolerance to membrane-damaging agents. E. faecalis's success as a pathobiont depends on its antimicrobial resistance, as well as on its rapid adaptability to overcome multiple environmental challenges. Thus, targeting adaptive genetic and/or metabolic pathways induced during E. faecalis surface penetration may be useful to better confront infections by this bacterium in the clinic.
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Barbuti MD, Myrbråten IS, Morales Angeles D, Kjos M. The cell cycle of Staphylococcus aureus: An updated review. Microbiologyopen 2022; 12:e1338. [PMID: 36825883 PMCID: PMC9733580 DOI: 10.1002/mbo3.1338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Revised: 11/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
As bacteria proliferate, DNA replication, chromosome segregation, cell wall synthesis, and cytokinesis occur concomitantly and need to be tightly regulated and coordinated. Although these cell cycle processes have been studied for decades, several mechanisms remain elusive, specifically in coccus-shaped cells such as Staphylococcus aureus. In recent years, major progress has been made in our understanding of how staphylococci divide, including new, fundamental insights into the mechanisms of cell wall synthesis and division site selection. Furthermore, several novel proteins and mechanisms involved in the regulation of replication initiation or progression of the cell cycle have been identified and partially characterized. In this review, we will summarize our current understanding of the cell cycle processes in the spheroid model bacterium S. aureus, with a focus on recent advances in the understanding of how these processes are regulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria D. Barbuti
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food ScienceNorwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU)ÅsNorway
| | - Ine S. Myrbråten
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food ScienceNorwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU)ÅsNorway
| | - Danae Morales Angeles
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food ScienceNorwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU)ÅsNorway
| | - Morten Kjos
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food ScienceNorwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU)ÅsNorway
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Bharatiya B, Wlodek M, Harniman R, Schweins R, Mantell J, Wang G, Warszynski P, Briscoe WH. Solution and interfacial self-assembly of Bacillus subtilis bacterial lipoteichoic acid (LTA): nanoclustering, and effects of Ca 2+ and temperature. NANOSCALE 2022; 14:12265-12274. [PMID: 35861484 DOI: 10.1039/d2nr00595f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Lipoteichoic acid (LTA) is a major structural and functional molecule in the Gram-positive bacteria membrane. Knowledge of LTA adsorption at interfaces and its solution self-assembly is crucial to understanding its role in bacterial adhesion and colonisation, infections and inflammations. Here, we report the self-assembly behaviour of LTA extracted from Bacillus subtilis, a Gram-positive bacterium, in an aqueous solution using cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (Cryo-TEM) and small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) and its adsorption behaviour at the solid-liquid interface using atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging and quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (QCM-D). The Cryo-TEM results indicated the formation of spherical LTA micelles that decreased in size on addition of calcium chloride (CaCl2), attributed to charge neutralisation and possible formation of stable Ca2+-bridges between the phosphate groups on neighbouring LTA chains. Analysis of the SANS data from the polydisperse LTA aggregates in solution using the two Lorentzian model revealed the existence of two correlation lengths, which could respectively account for the presence of LTA micelle clusters and the local structure arising from LTA intra-molecular interactions. In the presence of CaCl2, the decrease in the correlation lengths of the clusters indicated possible disruption of H-bonding by Ca2+, leading to poorer water-LTA interactions. At higher temperatures, the correlation length corresponding to the clusters increased, indicating a temperature assisted growth caused by the fluidization of micellar core and dehydration of the polar LTA chains. AFM imaging showed that adsorption of LTA aggregates at the SiO2-water interface was significantly prompted by the addition of CaCl2, also confirmed by QCM-D measurements. These unprecedented nanoscopic structural details on the morphology of LTA aggregates in solution and at the solid-liquid interface add to our fundamental understanding of its self-assembly behaviour hitherto underexplored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhavesh Bharatiya
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, UK.
| | - Magdalena Wlodek
- Jerzy Haber Institute of Catalysis and Surface Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Niezapominajek 8, PL-30239 Krakow, Poland
| | - Robert Harniman
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, UK.
| | - Ralf Schweins
- Institut Laue-Langevin, DS/LSS, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, Grenoble 38000, France
| | - Judith Mantell
- Wolfson Bioimaging Facility, University of Bristol, Medical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK
| | - Gang Wang
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, UK.
| | - Piotr Warszynski
- Jerzy Haber Institute of Catalysis and Surface Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Niezapominajek 8, PL-30239 Krakow, Poland
| | - Wuge H Briscoe
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, UK.
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11
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Wall Teichoic Acids Facilitate the Release of Toxins from the Surface of Staphylococcus aureus. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0101122. [PMID: 35863033 PMCID: PMC9430763 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.01011-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A major feature of the pathogenicity of Staphylococcus aureus is its ability to secrete cytolytic toxins. This process involves the translocation of the toxins from the cytoplasm through the bacterial membrane and the cell wall to the external environment. The process of their movement through the membrane is relatively well defined, involving both general and toxin-specific secretory systems. Movement of the toxins through the cell wall was considered to involve the passive diffusion of the proteins through the porous cell wall structures; however, recent work suggests that this is more complex, and here we demonstrate a role for the wall teichoic acids (WTA) in this process. Utilizing a genome-wide association approach, we identified a polymorphism in the locus encoding the WTA biosynthetic machinery as associated with the cytolytic activity of the bacteria. We verified this association using an isogenic mutant set and found that WTA are required for the release of several cytolytic toxins from the bacterial cells. We show that this effect is mediated by a change in the electrostatic charge across the cell envelope that results from the loss of WTA. As a major target for the development of novel therapeutics, it is important that we fully understand the entire process of cytolytic toxin production and release. These findings open up a new aspect to the process of toxin release by a major human pathogen while also demonstrating that clinical isolates can utilize WTA production to vary their cytotoxicity, thereby altering their pathogenic capabilities. IMPORTANCE The production and release of cytolytic toxins is a critical aspect for the pathogenicity of many bacterial pathogens. In this study, we demonstrate a role for wall teichoic acids, molecules that are anchored to the peptidoglycan of the bacterial cell wall, in the release of toxins from S. aureus cells into the extracellular environment. Our findings suggest that this effect is mediated by a gradient of electrostatic charge which the presence of the negatively charged WTA molecules create across the cell envelope. This work brings an entirely new aspect to our understanding of the cytotoxicity of S. aureus and demonstrates a further means by which this major human pathogen can adapt its pathogenic capabilities.
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Nikolopoulos N, Matos RC, Courtin P, Ayala I, Akherraz H, Simorre JP, Chapot-Chartier MP, Leulier F, Ravaud S, Grangeasse C. DltC acts as an interaction hub for AcpS, DltA and DltB in the teichoic acid D-alanylation pathway of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum. Sci Rep 2022; 12:13133. [PMID: 35907949 PMCID: PMC9338922 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-17434-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Teichoic acids (TA) are crucial for the homeostasis of the bacterial cell wall as well as their developmental behavior and interplay with the environment. TA can be decorated by different modifications, modulating thus their biochemical properties. One major modification consists in the esterification of TA by d-alanine, a process known as d-alanylation. TA d-alanylation is performed by the Dlt pathway, which starts in the cytoplasm and continues extracellularly after d-Ala transportation through the membrane. In this study, we combined structural biology and in vivo approaches to dissect the cytoplasmic steps of this pathway in Lactiplantibacillus plantarum, a bacterial species conferring health benefits to its animal host. After establishing that AcpS, DltB, DltC1 and DltA are required for the promotion of Drosophila juvenile growth under chronic undernutrition, we solved their crystal structure and/or used NMR and molecular modeling to study their interactions. Our work demonstrates that the suite of interactions between these proteins is ordered with a conserved surface of DltC1 docking sequentially AcpS, DltA and eventually DltB. Altogether, we conclude that DltC1 acts as an interaction hub for all the successive cytoplasmic steps of the TA d-alanylation pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikos Nikolopoulos
- Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry, CNRS UMR 5086, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - Renata C Matos
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle de Lyon, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS UMR 5242, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - Pascal Courtin
- INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Isabel Ayala
- Institut de Biologie Structurale, CEA, CNRS UMR 5075, Université Grenoble Alpes, 3800, Grenoble, France
| | - Houssam Akherraz
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle de Lyon, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS UMR 5242, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - Jean-Pierre Simorre
- Institut de Biologie Structurale, CEA, CNRS UMR 5075, Université Grenoble Alpes, 3800, Grenoble, France
| | | | - François Leulier
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle de Lyon, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS UMR 5242, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - Stéphanie Ravaud
- Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry, CNRS UMR 5086, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France.
| | - Christophe Grangeasse
- Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry, CNRS UMR 5086, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France.
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Potential of New Bacterial Strains for a Multiproduct Bioprocess Application: A Case Study Using Isolates of Lactic Acid Bacteria from Pineapple Silage of Costa Rican Agro-Industrial Residues. FERMENTATION 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/fermentation8080361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) with potential for the development of multi-product processes are necessary for the valorization of side streams obtained during the biotechnological production of lactic acid (LA). In this study, 14 LAB strains isolated from pineapple agro-industrial residues in Costa Rica were cultivated in microplates, and the six strains with the highest growth were selected for fermentation in microbioreactors to evaluate the production of LA and acetic acid, and the consumption of glucose. Lacticaseibacillus paracasei 6710 and L. paracasei 6714 presented the highest OD600 values (1.600 and 1.602, respectively); however, the highest LA (in g/L) production was observed in L. paracasei 6714 (14.50 ± 0.20) and 6712 (14.67 ± 0.42). L. paracasei 6714 was selected for bioreactor fermentation and reached a maximum OD600 of 6.3062 ± 0.141, with a LA yield of 84.9% and a productivity of 1.06 g L−1 h−1 after 21 h of fermentation. Finally, lipoteichoic acid (LTA) detection from biomass was performed and the antimicrobial activity of the compounds present in the supernatant was studied. LTA was detected from L. paracasei 6714 biomass, and its supernatant caused significant inhibition of foodborne surrogate microorganisms. LAB isolated from pineapple silage have biotechnological potential for multiproduct processes.
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Hammond LR, Sacco MD, Khan SJ, Spanoudis C, Hough-Neidig A, Chen Y, Eswara PJ. GpsB Coordinates Cell Division and Cell Surface Decoration by Wall Teichoic Acids in Staphylococcus aureus. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0141322. [PMID: 35647874 PMCID: PMC9241681 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.01413-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial cell division is a complex and highly regulated process requiring the coordination of many different proteins. Despite substantial work in model organisms, our understanding of the systems regulating cell division in noncanonical organisms, including critical human pathogens, is far from complete. One such organism is Staphylococcus aureus, a spherical bacterium that lacks known cell division regulatory proteins. Recent studies on GpsB, a protein conserved within the Firmicutes phylum, have provided insight into cell division regulation in S. aureus and other related organisms. It has been revealed that GpsB coordinates cell division and cell wall synthesis in multiple species. In S. aureus, we have previously shown that GpsB directly regulates FtsZ polymerization. In this study, using Bacillus subtilis as a tool, we isolated spontaneous suppressors that abrogate the lethality of S. aureus GpsB overproduction in B. subtilis. Through characterization, we identified several residues important for the function of GpsB. Furthermore, we discovered an additional role for GpsB in wall teichoic acid (WTA) biosynthesis in S. aureus. Specifically, we show that GpsB directly interacts with the WTA export protein TarG. We also identified a region in GpsB that is crucial for this interaction. Analysis of TarG localization in S. aureus suggests that WTA machinery is part of the divisome complex. Taken together, this research illustrates how GpsB performs an essential function in S. aureus by directly linking the tightly regulated cell cycle processes of cell division and WTA-mediated cell surface decoration. IMPORTANCE Cytokinesis in bacteria involves an intricate orchestration of several key cell division proteins and other factors involved in building a robust cell envelope. Presence of teichoic acids is a signature characteristic of the Gram-positive cell wall. By characterizing the role of Staphylococcus aureus GpsB, an essential cell division protein in this organism, we have uncovered an additional role for GpsB in wall teichoic acid (WTA) biosynthesis. We show that GpsB directly interacts with TarG of the WTA export complex. We also show that this function of GpsB may be conserved in other GpsB homologs as GpsB and the WTA exporter complex follow similar localization patterns. It has been suggested that WTA acts as a molecular signal to control the activity of autolytic enzymes, especially during the separation of conjoined daughter cells. Thus, our results reveal that GpsB, in addition to playing a role in cell division, may also help coordinate WTA biogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren R. Hammond
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology, and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Michael D. Sacco
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Sebastian J. Khan
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology, and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Catherine Spanoudis
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology, and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Abigail Hough-Neidig
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology, and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Yu Chen
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Prahathees J. Eswara
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology, and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
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Trudelle D, Bryan DW, Ray S, Munafo JP, Denes TG. Analysis of Derivatized Wall Teichoic Acids Confirms that a Mutation in Phage-Resistant Listeria monocytogenes Impacts Rhamnose Decoration. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:17002-17013. [PMID: 35647425 PMCID: PMC9134232 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c07403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Listeria monocytogenes is a Gram-positive foodborne pathogen that causes listeriosis, an illness that may result in serious health consequences or death. Wall teichoic acids (WTAs) are external cell wall glycopolymers that play many biological roles. Here, the WTA composition was determined for several phage-resistant mutant strains of L. monocytogenes. The strains included wild-type (WT) L. monocytogenes 10403S, and three phage-resistant mutant strains derived from 10403S, consisting of two well-characterized strains and one with unknown impact on cell physiology. Several WTA monomers were prepared from WT 10403S, as analytical standards. The WTA monomer fraction was then isolated from the mutant strains and the corresponding per-trimethylsilylated derivatives were analyzed by gas chromatography-flame ionization detection. WTA monomer, GlcNAc-Rha-Rbo, was detected in 10403S, and not detected in the phage-resistant strains known to lack rhamnose and N-acetylglucosamine; although the expected monomers GlcNAc-Rbo and Rha-Rbo were detected, respectively. GlcNAc-Rha-Rbo was also detected in strain UTK P1-0001, which is known to impact phage adsorption through an undetermined mechanism, albeit at a lower intensity than the WT 10403S, which is consistent with partial loss of function through truncation in RmlC protein. WTA monomers were also detected in an unpurified cell pellet, demonstrating that the method employed in this study can be used to rapidly screen L. monocytogenes without laborious WTA purification. This study lays the groundwork for future studies on WTA compositional analysis to support genomic data, and serves as a foundation for the development of new rapid methods for WTA compositional analysis.
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Abstract
AbstractThe complex composition of bacterial membranes has a significant impact on the understanding of pathogen function and their development towards antibiotic resistance. In addition to the inherent complexity and biosafety risks of studying biological pathogen membranes, the continual rise of antibiotic resistance and its significant economical and clinical consequences has motivated the development of numerous in vitro model membrane systems with tuneable compositions, geometries, and sizes. Approaches discussed in this review include liposomes, solid-supported bilayers, and computational simulations which have been used to explore various processes including drug-membrane interactions, lipid-protein interactions, host–pathogen interactions, and structure-induced bacterial pathogenesis. The advantages, limitations, and applicable analytical tools of all architectures are summarised with a perspective for future research efforts in architectural improvement and elucidation of resistance development strategies and membrane-targeting antibiotic mechanisms.
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Pang X, Wu Y, Liu X, Wu Y, Shu Q, Niu J, Chen Q, Zhang X. The Lipoteichoic Acid-Related Proteins YqgS and LafA Contribute to the Resistance of Listeria monocytogenes to Nisin. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0209521. [PMID: 35196823 PMCID: PMC8865564 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.02095-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Listeria monocytogenes is a major pathogen contributing to foodborne outbreaks with high mortality. Nisin, a natural antimicrobial, has been widely used as a food preservative. However, the mechanisms of L. monocytogenes involved in nisin resistance have not yet to be fully defined. A mariner transposon library was constructed in L. monocytogenes, leading to the identification of 99 genes associated with the innate resistance to nisin via Transposon sequencing (Tn-seq) analysis. To validate the accuracy of the Tn-seq results, we constructed five mutants (ΔyqgS, ΔlafA, ΔvirR, ΔgtcA, and Δlmo1464) in L. monocytogenes. The results revealed that yqgS and lafA, the lipoteichoic acid-related genes, were essential for resistance to nisin, while the gtcA and lmo1464 mutants showed substantially enhanced nisin resistance. Densely wrinkled, collapsed surface and membrane breakdown were shown on ΔyqgS and ΔlafA mutants under nisin treatment. Deletion of yqgS and lafA altered the surface charge, and decreased the resistance to general stress conditions and cell envelope-acting antimicrobials. Furthermore, YqgS and LafA are required for biofilm formation and cell invasion of L. monocytogenes. Collectively, these results reveal novel mechanisms of nisin resistance in L. monocytogenes and may provide unique targets for the development of food-grade inhibitors for nisin-resistant foodborne pathogens. IMPORTANCE Listeria monocytogenes is an opportunistic Gram-positive pathogen responsible for listeriosis, and is widely present in a variety of foods including ready-to-eat foods, meat, and dairy products. Nisin is the only licensed lantibiotic by the FDA for use as a food-grade inhibitor in over 50 countries. A prior study suggests that L. monocytogenes are more resistant than other Gram-positive pathogens in nisin-mediated bactericidal effects. However, the mechanisms of L. monocytogenes involved in nisin resistance have not yet to be fully defined. Here, we used a mariner transposon library to identify nisin-resistance-related genes on a genome-wide scale via transposon sequencing. We found, for the first time, that YqgS and LafA (Lipoteichoic acid-related proteins) are required for resistance to nisin. Subsequently, we investigated the roles of YqgS and LafA in L. monocytogenes stress resistance, antimicrobial resistance, biofilm formation, and virulence in mammalian cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinxin Pang
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yansha Wu
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiayu Liu
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yajing Wu
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Qin Shu
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jianrui Niu
- College of Agriculture and Forestry, Linyi University, Linyi, China
| | - Qihe Chen
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xinglin Zhang
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- College of Agriculture and Forestry, Linyi University, Linyi, China
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18
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Banahene N, Kavunja HW, Swarts BM. Chemical Reporters for Bacterial Glycans: Development and Applications. Chem Rev 2022; 122:3336-3413. [PMID: 34905344 PMCID: PMC8958928 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Bacteria possess an extraordinary repertoire of cell envelope glycans that have critical physiological functions. Pathogenic bacteria have glycans that are essential for growth and virulence but are absent from humans, making them high-priority targets for antibiotic, vaccine, and diagnostic development. The advent of metabolic labeling with bioorthogonal chemical reporters and small-molecule fluorescent reporters has enabled the investigation and targeting of specific bacterial glycans in their native environments. These tools have opened the door to imaging glycan dynamics, assaying and inhibiting glycan biosynthesis, profiling glycoproteins and glycan-binding proteins, and targeting pathogens with diagnostic and therapeutic payload. These capabilities have been wielded in diverse commensal and pathogenic Gram-positive, Gram-negative, and mycobacterial species─including within live host organisms. Here, we review the development and applications of chemical reporters for bacterial glycans, including peptidoglycan, lipopolysaccharide, glycoproteins, teichoic acids, and capsular polysaccharides, as well as mycobacterial glycans, including trehalose glycolipids and arabinan-containing glycoconjugates. We cover in detail how bacteria-targeting chemical reporters are designed, synthesized, and evaluated, how they operate from a mechanistic standpoint, and how this information informs their judicious and innovative application. We also provide a perspective on the current state and future directions of the field, underscoring the need for interdisciplinary teams to create novel tools and extend existing tools to support fundamental and translational research on bacterial glycans.
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Yoo HJ, Lee SH. Virulence of Filifactor alocis lipoteichoic acid on human gingival fibroblast. Arch Oral Biol 2022; 135:105370. [DOI: 10.1016/j.archoralbio.2022.105370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2021] [Revised: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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Differential Immunostimulatory Effects of Lipoteichoic Acids Isolated from Four Strains of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/app12030954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The intestinal health and immune modulatory effects of probiotics are well known. As with live bacteria, several studies demonstrating the ability of dead cells to improve gut health and immunity have suggested varying potentials for microbes to affect the human gut. The effect of dead microbes most likely derives from the cell wall of the microorganism. In this study, the functionality of lipoteichoic acid (LTA), a cell wall component, isolated from four stains of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum, K8, K88, K5-5, and K55-5, and the relationship between LTAs and their receptors were investigated. The four strains of L. plantarum have different LTA structures, which contributed to different immune activities in the immune cells. We confirmed that the different binding abilities with the host cell surface receptors, along with the differences in signal pathway, were due to the structural differences of the LTAs. LTA is an important postbiotic that induces various immunomodulatory actions.
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21
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Microbial cell surface engineering for high-level synthesis of bio-products. Biotechnol Adv 2022; 55:107912. [PMID: 35041862 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2022.107912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2021] [Revised: 12/28/2021] [Accepted: 01/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Microbial cell surface layers, which mainly include the cell membrane, cell wall, periplasmic space, outer membrane, capsules, S-layers, pili, and flagella, control material exchange between the cell and the extracellular environment, and have great impact on production titers and yields of various bio-products synthesized by microbes. Recent research work has made exciting achievements in metabolic engineering using microbial cell surface components as novel regulation targets without direct modifications of the metabolic pathways of the desired products. This review article will summarize the accomplishments obtained in this emerging field, and will describe various engineering strategies that have been adopted in bacteria and yeasts for the enhancement of mass transfer across the cell surface, improvement of protein expression and folding, modulation of cell size and shape, and re-direction of cellular resources, all of which contribute to the construction of more efficient microbial cell factories toward the synthesis of a variety of bio-products. The existing problems and possible future directions will also be discussed.
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22
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Julian JD, Zabotina OA. Xyloglucan Biosynthesis: From Genes to Proteins and Their Functions. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:920494. [PMID: 35720558 PMCID: PMC9201394 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.920494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The plant's recalcitrant cell wall is composed of numerous polysaccharides, including cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin. The most abundant hemicellulose in dicot cell walls is xyloglucan, which consists of a β-(1- > 4) glucan backbone with α-(1- > 6) xylosylation producing an XXGG or XXXG pattern. Xylose residues of xyloglucan are branched further with different patterns of arabinose, fucose, galactose, and acetylation that varies between species. Although xyloglucan research in other species lag behind Arabidopsis thaliana, significant advances have been made into the agriculturally relevant species Oryza sativa and Solanum lycopersicum, which can be considered model organisms for XXGG type xyloglucan. In this review, we will present what is currently known about xyloglucan biosynthesis in A. thaliana, O. sativa, and S. lycopersicum and discuss the recent advances in the characterization of the glycosyltransferases involved in this complex process and their organization in the Golgi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan D Julian
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Olga A Zabotina
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
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23
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Biosynthetic Mechanisms and Biological Significance of Glycerol Phosphate-Containing Glycan in Mammals. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26216675. [PMID: 34771084 PMCID: PMC8587909 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26216675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Revised: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacteria contain glycerol phosphate (GroP)-containing glycans, which are important constituents of cell-surface glycopolymers such as the teichoic acids of Gram-positive bacterial cell walls. These glycopolymers comprising GroP play crucial roles in bacterial physiology and virulence. Recently, the first identification of a GroP-containing glycan in mammals was reported as a variant form of O-mannosyl glycan on α-dystroglycan (α-DG). However, the biological significance of such GroP modification remains largely unknown. In this review, we provide an overview of this new discovery of GroP-containing glycan in mammals and then outline the recent progress in elucidating the biosynthetic mechanisms of GroP-containing glycans on α-DG. In addition, we discuss the potential biological role of GroP modification along with the challenges and prospects for further research. The progress in this newly identified glycan modification will provide insights into the phylogenetic implications of glycan.
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24
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Abidi W, Torres-Sánchez L, Siroy A, Krasteva PV. Weaving of bacterial cellulose by the Bcs secretion systems. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2021; 46:6388354. [PMID: 34634120 PMCID: PMC8892547 DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fuab051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cellulose is the most abundant biological compound on Earth and while it is the predominant building constituent of plants, it is also a key extracellular matrix component in many diverse bacterial species. While bacterial cellulose was first described in the 19th century, it was not until this last decade that a string of structural works provided insights into how the cellulose synthase BcsA, assisted by its inner-membrane partner BcsB, senses c-di-GMP to simultaneously polymerize its substrate and extrude the nascent polysaccharide across the inner bacterial membrane. It is now established that bacterial cellulose can be produced by several distinct types of cellulose secretion systems and that in addition to BcsAB, they can feature multiple accessory subunits, often indispensable for polysaccharide production. Importantly, the last years mark significant progress in our understanding not only of cellulose polymerization per se but also of the bigger picture of bacterial signaling, secretion system assembly, biofilm formation and host tissue colonization, as well as of structural and functional parallels of this dominant biosynthetic process between the bacterial and eukaryotic domains of life. Here, we review current mechanistic knowledge on bacterial cellulose secretion with focus on the structure, assembly and cooperativity of Bcs secretion system components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wiem Abidi
- 'Structural Biology of Biofilms' group, European Institute of Chemistry and Biology (IECB), F-33600 Pessac, France.,Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, Bordeaux INP, CBMN, UMR 5248, F-33600 Pessac, France.,École doctorale 'Innovation thérapeutique: du fundamental à l'appliqué' (ITFA), Université Paris-Saclay, 92296, Chatenay-Malabry, France
| | - Lucía Torres-Sánchez
- 'Structural Biology of Biofilms' group, European Institute of Chemistry and Biology (IECB), F-33600 Pessac, France.,Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, Bordeaux INP, CBMN, UMR 5248, F-33600 Pessac, France.,École doctorale 'Innovation thérapeutique: du fundamental à l'appliqué' (ITFA), Université Paris-Saclay, 92296, Chatenay-Malabry, France
| | - Axel Siroy
- 'Structural Biology of Biofilms' group, European Institute of Chemistry and Biology (IECB), F-33600 Pessac, France.,Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, Bordeaux INP, CBMN, UMR 5248, F-33600 Pessac, France
| | - Petya Violinova Krasteva
- 'Structural Biology of Biofilms' group, European Institute of Chemistry and Biology (IECB), F-33600 Pessac, France.,Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, Bordeaux INP, CBMN, UMR 5248, F-33600 Pessac, France
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25
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Hemkemeyer M, Schwalb SA, Heinze S, Joergensen RG, Wichern F. Functions of elements in soil microorganisms. Microbiol Res 2021; 252:126832. [PMID: 34508963 DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2021.126832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2021] [Revised: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The soil microbial community fulfils various functions, such as nutrient cycling and carbon (C) sequestration, therefore contributing to maintenance of soil fertility and mitigation of global warming. In this context, a major focus of research has been on C, nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) cycling. However, from aquatic and other environments, it is well known that other elements beyond C, N, and P are essential for microbial functioning. Nonetheless, for soil microorganisms this knowledge has not yet been synthesised. To gain a better mechanistic understanding of microbial processes in soil systems, we aimed at summarising the current knowledge on the function of a range of essential or beneficial elements, which may affect the efficiency of microbial processes in soil. This knowledge is discussed in the context of microbial driven nutrient and C cycling. Our findings may support future investigations and data evaluation, where other elements than C, N, and P affect microbial processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Hemkemeyer
- Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Institute of Biogenic Resources in Sustainable Food Systems - From Farm to Function, Rhine-Waal University of Applied Sciences, Marie-Curie-Str. 1, 47533 Kleve, Germany.
| | - Sanja A Schwalb
- Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Institute of Biogenic Resources in Sustainable Food Systems - From Farm to Function, Rhine-Waal University of Applied Sciences, Marie-Curie-Str. 1, 47533 Kleve, Germany
| | - Stefanie Heinze
- Department of Soil Science & Soil Ecology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Universitätsstr. 150, 44801 Bochum, Germany
| | - Rainer Georg Joergensen
- Department of Soil Biology and Plant Nutrition, University of Kassel, Nordbahnhofstr. 1a, 37213 Witzenhausen, Germany
| | - Florian Wichern
- Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Institute of Biogenic Resources in Sustainable Food Systems - From Farm to Function, Rhine-Waal University of Applied Sciences, Marie-Curie-Str. 1, 47533 Kleve, Germany
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26
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Gisch N, Peters K, Thomsen S, Vollmer W, Schwudke D, Denapaite D. Commensal Streptococcus mitis produces two different lipoteichoic acids of type I and type IV. Glycobiology 2021; 31:1655-1669. [PMID: 34314482 DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwab079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Revised: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The opportunistic pathogen Streptococcus mitis possesses, like other members of the Mitis group of viridans streptococci, phosphorylcholine (P-Cho)-containing teichoic acids (TAs) in its cell wall. Bioinformatic analyses predicted the presence of TAs that are almost identical with those identified in the pathogen S. pneumoniae, but a detailed analysis of S. mitis lipoteichoic acid (LTA) was not performed to date. Here we determined the structures of LTA from two S. mitis strains, the high-level beta-lactam and multiple antibiotic resistant strain B6 and the penicillin-sensitive strain NCTC10712. In agreement with bioinformatic predictions we found that the structure of one LTA (type IV) was like pneumococcal LTA, except the exchange of a glucose moiety with a galactose within the repeating units. Further genome comparisons suggested that the majority of S. mitis strains should contain the same type IV LTA as S. pneumoniae, providing a more complete understanding of the biosynthesis of these P-Cho-containing TAs in members of the Mitis group of streptococci. Remarkably, we observed besides type IV LTA an additional polymer belonging to LTA type I in both investigated S. mitis strains. This LTA consists of β-galactofuranosyl-(1,3)-diacylglycerol as glycolipid anchor and a poly-glycerol-phosphate chain at the O-6 position of the furanosidic galactose. Hence, these bacteria are capable of synthesizing two different LTA polymers, most likely produced by distinct biosynthesis pathways. Our bioinformatics analysis revealed the prevalence of the LTA synthase LtaS, most probably responsible for the second LTA version (type I), amongst S. mitis and S. pseudopneumoniae strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Gisch
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Priority Area Infections, Research Center Borstel, Leibniz Lung Center, 23845 Borstel, Germany
| | - Katharina Peters
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, NE2 4AX Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Simone Thomsen
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Priority Area Infections, Research Center Borstel, Leibniz Lung Center, 23845 Borstel, Germany
| | - Waldemar Vollmer
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, NE2 4AX Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Dominik Schwudke
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Priority Area Infections, Research Center Borstel, Leibniz Lung Center, 23845 Borstel, Germany.,German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Thematic Translational Unit Tuberculosis, Partner Site: Hamburg-Lübeck-Borstel-Riems, 23845 Borstel, Germany.,Airway Research Center North, Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), 23845 Borstel, Germany
| | - Dalia Denapaite
- Department of Microbiology, University of Kaiserslautern, 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany
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27
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Hahn J, DeSantis M, Dubnau D. Mechanisms of Transforming DNA Uptake to the Periplasm of Bacillus subtilis. mBio 2021; 12:e0106121. [PMID: 34126763 PMCID: PMC8262900 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01061-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We demonstrate here that the acquisition of DNase resistance by transforming DNA, often assumed to indicate transport to the cytoplasm, reflects uptake to the periplasm, requiring a reevaluation of conclusions about the roles of several proteins in transformation. The new evidence suggests that the transformation pilus is needed for DNA binding to the cell surface near the cell poles and for the initiation of uptake. The cellular distribution of the membrane-anchored ComEA of Bacillus subtilis does not dramatically change during DNA uptake as does the unanchored ComEA of Vibrio and Neisseria. Instead, our evidence suggests that ComEA stabilizes the attachment of transforming DNA at localized regions in the periplasm and then mediates uptake, probably by a Brownian ratchet mechanism. Following that, the DNA is transferred to periplasmic portions of the channel protein ComEC, which plays a previously unsuspected role in uptake to the periplasm. We show that the transformation endonuclease NucA also facilitates uptake to the periplasm and that the previously demonstrated role of ComFA in the acquisition of DNase resistance derives from the instability of ComGA when ComFA is deleted. These results prompt a new understanding of the early stages of DNA uptake for transformation. IMPORTANCE Transformation is a widely distributed mechanism of bacterial horizontal gene transfer that plays a role in the spread of antibiotic resistance and virulence genes and more generally in evolution. Although transformation was discovered nearly a century ago and most, if not all the proteins required have been identified in several bacterial species, much remains poorly understood about the molecular mechanism of DNA uptake. This study uses epifluorescence microscopy to investigate the passage of labeled DNA into the compartment between the cell wall and the cell membrane of Bacillus subtilis, a necessary early step in transformation. The roles of individual proteins in this process are identified, and their modes of action are clarified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeanette Hahn
- Public Health Research Institute, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey, USA
| | - Micaela DeSantis
- Public Health Research Institute, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey, USA
| | - David Dubnau
- Public Health Research Institute, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey, USA
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28
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Zhang R, Shebes MA, Kho K, Scaffidi SJ, Meredith TC, Yu W. Spatial regulation of protein A in Staphylococcus aureus. Mol Microbiol 2021; 116:589-605. [PMID: 33949015 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.14734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Revised: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Surface proteins of Staphylococcus aureus play vital roles in bacterial physiology and pathogenesis. Recent work suggests that surface proteins are spatially regulated by a YSIRK/GXXS signal peptide that promotes cross-wall targeting at the mid-cell, though the mechanisms remain unclear. We previously showed that protein A (SpA), a YSIRK/GXXS protein and key staphylococcal virulence factor, mis-localizes in a ltaS mutant deficient in lipoteichoic acid (LTA) production. Here, we identified that SpA contains another cross-wall targeting signal, the LysM domain, which, in addition to the YSIRK/GXXS signal peptide, significantly enhances SpA cross-wall targeting. We show that LTA synthesis, but not LtaS, is required for SpA septal anchoring and cross-wall deposition. Interestingly, LTA is predominantly found at the peripheral cell membrane and is diminished at the septum of dividing staphylococcal cells, suggesting a restriction mechanism for SpA septal localization. Finally, we show that D-alanylation of LTA abolishes SpA cross-wall deposition by disrupting SpA distribution in the peptidoglycan layer without altering SpA septal anchoring. Our study reveals that multiple factors contribute to the spatial regulation and cross-wall targeting of SpA via different mechanisms, which coordinately ensures efficient incorporation of surface proteins into the growing peptidoglycan during the cell cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ran Zhang
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology and Molecular Biology (CMMB), University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Mac A Shebes
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology and Molecular Biology (CMMB), University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Kelvin Kho
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Salvatore J Scaffidi
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology and Molecular Biology (CMMB), University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Timothy C Meredith
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Wenqi Yu
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology and Molecular Biology (CMMB), University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
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29
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Mello SS, Van Tyne D, Lebreton F, Silva SQ, Nogueira MCL, Gilmore MS, Camargo ILBC. A mutation in the glycosyltransferase gene lafB causes daptomycin hypersusceptibility in Enterococcus faecium. J Antimicrob Chemother 2021; 75:36-45. [PMID: 31586422 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkz403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Revised: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 08/23/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To verify dissemination of daptomycin-non-susceptible Enterococcus faecium in a hospital where daptomycin was not in use and to understand the evolutionary pathways connecting daptomycin hypersusceptibility to non-susceptibility. METHODS Clonality of 26 E. faecium was assessed by PFGE and the STs of these isolates were determined. The most daptomycin-susceptible isolate was evolved in vitro by stepwise daptomycin selection, generating isolates for genome comparisons. RESULTS The spread of a high-risk daptomycin-non-susceptible VRE clone was detected, as was the occurrence of an unusual daptomycin-hypersusceptible strain (HBSJRP18). To determine the basis for daptomycin hypersusceptibility, we evolved HBSJRP18 in vitro and identified candidate genetic alterations potentially related to daptomycin susceptibility. Both lafB, encoding glycosyltransferase, which is putatively involved in lipoteichoic acid (LTA) biosynthesis, and dak, encoding a dihydroxyacetone kinase likely involved in fatty acid metabolism, were mutated in multiple independent experiments. Trans-complementation showed that the lafB polymorphism naturally occurring in HBSJRP18 caused its daptomycin hypersusceptibility. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy identified differences between the extracted LTA spectra from the hypersusceptible isolate and its revertant, as well as other non-susceptible variants, supporting a role for LafB in E. faecium LTA biosynthesis. Zeta potential difference was detected in one evolved dak mutant derivative. While much more susceptible to daptomycin, HBSJRP18 showed enhanced growth in the presence of piperacillin, suggesting that this, or another cell wall-targeting antibiotic, may have selected for the daptomycin-hypersusceptible phenotype. CONCLUSIONS Our findings provide new information on the basis for daptomycin susceptibility in E. faecium, with implications for limiting the development and spread of daptomycin resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suelen S Mello
- Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil.,São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Daria Van Tyne
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Francois Lebreton
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Simone Q Silva
- Departamento de Doenças Dermatológicas, Infecciosas e Parasitárias, Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto - FAMERP, São José do Rio Preto, Brazil.,Instituto de Biociências, Letras e Ciências Exatas (IBILCE) - UNESP, São José do Rio Preto, Brazil
| | - Mara C L Nogueira
- Departamento de Doenças Dermatológicas, Infecciosas e Parasitárias, Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto - FAMERP, São José do Rio Preto, Brazil
| | - Michael S Gilmore
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Ilana L B C Camargo
- São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
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30
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Fisher JF, Mobashery S. β-Lactams against the Fortress of the Gram-Positive Staphylococcus aureus Bacterium. Chem Rev 2021; 121:3412-3463. [PMID: 33373523 PMCID: PMC8653850 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c01010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The biological diversity of the unicellular bacteria-whether assessed by shape, food, metabolism, or ecological niche-surely rivals (if not exceeds) that of the multicellular eukaryotes. The relationship between bacteria whose ecological niche is the eukaryote, and the eukaryote, is often symbiosis or stasis. Some bacteria, however, seek advantage in this relationship. One of the most successful-to the disadvantage of the eukaryote-is the small (less than 1 μm diameter) and nearly spherical Staphylococcus aureus bacterium. For decades, successful clinical control of its infection has been accomplished using β-lactam antibiotics such as the penicillins and the cephalosporins. Over these same decades S. aureus has perfected resistance mechanisms against these antibiotics, which are then countered by new generations of β-lactam structure. This review addresses the current breadth of biochemical and microbiological efforts to preserve the future of the β-lactam antibiotics through a better understanding of how S. aureus protects the enzyme targets of the β-lactams, the penicillin-binding proteins. The penicillin-binding proteins are essential enzyme catalysts for the biosynthesis of the cell wall, and understanding how this cell wall is integrated into the protective cell envelope of the bacterium may identify new antibacterials and new adjuvants that preserve the efficacy of the β-lactams.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jed F Fisher
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, McCourtney Hall, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Shahriar Mobashery
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, McCourtney Hall, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame Indiana 46556, United States
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31
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Streptococcus pneumoniae, S. mitis, and S. oralis Produce a Phosphatidylglycerol-Dependent, ltaS-Independent Glycerophosphate-Linked Glycolipid. mSphere 2021; 6:6/1/e01099-20. [PMID: 33627509 PMCID: PMC8544892 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.01099-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Lipoteichoic acid (LTA) is a Gram-positive bacterial cell surface polymer that participates in host-microbe interactions. It was previously reported that the major human pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae and the closely related oral commensals S. mitis and S. oralis produce type IV LTAs. Herein, using liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry-based lipidomic analysis, we found that in addition to type IV LTA biosynthetic precursors, S. mitis, S. oralis, and S. pneumoniae also produce glycerophosphate (Gro-P)-linked dihexosyl (DH)-diacylglycerol (DAG), which is a biosynthetic precursor of type I LTA. cdsA and pgsA mutants produce DHDAG but lack (Gro-P)-DHDAG, indicating that the Gro-P moiety is derived from phosphatidylglycerol (PG), whose biosynthesis requires these genes. S. mitis, but not S. pneumoniae or S. oralis, encodes an ortholog of the PG-dependent type I LTA synthase, ltaS. By heterologous expression analyses, we confirmed that S. mitisltaS confers poly(Gro-P) synthesis in both Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus and that S. mitisltaS can rescue the growth defect of an S. aureusltaS mutant. However, we do not detect a poly(Gro-P) polymer in S. mitis using an anti-type I LTA antibody. Moreover, Gro-P-linked DHDAG is still synthesized by an S. mitisltaS mutant, demonstrating that S. mitis LtaS does not catalyze Gro-P transfer to DHDAG. Finally, an S. mitisltaS mutant has increased sensitivity to human serum, demonstrating that ltaS confers a beneficial but currently undefined function in S. mitis. Overall, our results demonstrate that S. mitis, S. pneumoniae, and S. oralis produce a Gro-P-linked glycolipid via a PG-dependent, ltaS-independent mechanism. IMPORTANCE The cell wall is a critical structural component of bacterial cells that confers important physiological functions. For pathogens, it is a site of host-pathogen interactions. In this work, we analyze the glycolipids synthesized by the mitis group streptococcal species, S. pneumoniae, S. oralis, and S. mitis. We find that all produce the glycolipid, glycerophosphate (Gro-P)-linked dihexosyl (DH)-diacylglycerol (DAG), which is a precursor for the cell wall polymer type I lipoteichoic acid in other bacteria. We investigate whether the known enzyme for type I LTA synthesis, LtaS, plays a role in synthesizing this molecule in S. mitis. Our results indicate that a novel mechanism is responsible. Our results are significant because they identify a novel feature of S. pneumoniae, S. oralis, and S. mitis glycolipid biology.
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32
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Solntceva V, Kostrzewa M, Larrouy-Maumus G. Detection of Species-Specific Lipids by Routine MALDI TOF Mass Spectrometry to Unlock the Challenges of Microbial Identification and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 10:621452. [PMID: 33634037 PMCID: PMC7902069 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.621452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry has revolutionized clinical microbiology diagnostics by delivering accurate, fast, and reliable identification of microorganisms. It is conventionally based on the detection of intracellular molecules, mainly ribosomal proteins, for identification at the species-level and/or genus-level. Nevertheless, for some microorganisms (e.g., for mycobacteria) extensive protocols are necessary in order to extract intracellular proteins, and in some cases a protein-based approach cannot provide sufficient evidence to accurately identify the microorganisms within the same genus (e.g., Shigella sp. vs E. coli and the species of the M. tuberculosis complex). Consequently lipids, along with proteins are also molecules of interest. Lipids are ubiquitous, but their structural diversity delivers complementary information to the conventional protein-based clinical microbiology matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) based approaches currently used. Lipid modifications, such as the ones found on lipid A related to polymyxin resistance in Gram-negative pathogens (e.g., phosphoethanolamine and aminoarabinose), not only play a role in the detection of microorganisms by routine MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry but can also be used as a read-out of drug susceptibility. In this review, we will demonstrate that in combination with proteins, lipids are a game-changer in both the rapid detection of pathogens and the determination of their drug susceptibility using routine MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vera Solntceva
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Gerald Larrouy-Maumus
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
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33
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Bacteria and Host Interplay in Staphylococcus aureus Septic Arthritis and Sepsis. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10020158. [PMID: 33546401 PMCID: PMC7913561 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10020158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 01/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) infections are a major healthcare challenge and new treatment alternatives are needed. S. aureus septic arthritis, a debilitating joint disease, causes permanent joint dysfunction in almost 50% of the patients. S. aureus bacteremia is associated with higher mortalities than bacteremia caused by most other microbes and can develop to severe sepsis and death. The key to new therapies is understanding the interplay between bacterial virulence factors and host immune response, which decides the disease outcome. S. aureus produces numerous virulence factors that facilitate bacterial dissemination, invasion into joint cavity, and cause septic arthritis. Monocytes, activated by several components of S. aureus such as lipoproteins, are responsible for bone destructions. In S. aureus sepsis, cytokine storm induced by S. aureus components leads to the hyperinflammatory status, DIC, multiple organ failure, and later death. The immune suppressive therapies at the very early time point might be protective. However, the timing of treatment is crucial, as late treatment may aggravate the immune paralysis and lead to uncontrolled infection and death.
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34
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Knaack W, Hölzl G, Gisch N. Structural Analysis of Glycosylglycerolipids Using NMR Spectroscopy. Methods Mol Biol 2021; 2295:249-272. [PMID: 34047981 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1362-7_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Glycosylglycerolipids are essential components of plant and bacterial membranes. These lipids exert central roles in physiological processes such as photosynthesis in plants or to maintain membrane stability in bacteria. They are composed of a glycerol backbone esterified with two fatty acids at the sn-1 and sn-2 positions, and carbohydrate moieties connected via a glycosidic bond at the sn-3 position. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is a state-of-the-art technique to determine the nature of the bound carbohydrates as well as their anomeric configurations. Here we describe the analysis of intact glycosylglycerolipids by NMR spectroscopy to determine structural details of their sugar head groups without the need of chemical derivatization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wiebke Knaack
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Research Center Borstel, Leibniz Lung Center, Borstel, Germany
| | - Georg Hölzl
- Institute of Molecular Physiology and Biotechnology of Plants (IMBIO), University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Nicolas Gisch
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Research Center Borstel, Leibniz Lung Center, Borstel, Germany.
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35
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Wu X, Han J, Gong G, Koffas MAG, Zha J. Wall teichoic acids: physiology and applications. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2020; 45:6019871. [DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fuaa064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Wall teichoic acids (WTAs) are charged glycopolymers containing phosphodiester-linked polyol units and represent one of the major components of Gram-positive cell envelope. WTAs have important physiological functions in cell division, gene transfer, surface adhesion, drug resistance and biofilm formation, and are critical virulence factors and vital determinants in mediating cell interaction with and tolerance to environmental factors. Here, we first briefly introduce WTA structure, biosynthesis and its regulation, and then summarize in detail four major physiological roles played by WTAs, i.e. WTA-mediated resistance to antimicrobials, virulence to mammalian cells, interaction with bacteriolytic enzymes and regulation of cell metabolism. We also review the applications of WTAs in these fields that are closely related to the human society, including antibacterial drug discovery targeting WTA biosynthesis, development of vaccines and antibodies regarding WTA-mediated pathogenicity, specific and sensitive detection of pathogens in food using WTAs as a surface epitope and regulation of WTA-related pathways for efficient microbial production of useful compounds. We also point out major problems remaining in these fields, and discuss some possible directions in the future exploration of WTA physiology and applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xia Wu
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710021, China
| | - Jing Han
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710021, China
| | - Guoli Gong
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710021, China
| | - Mattheos A G Koffas
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA
| | - Jian Zha
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710021, China
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36
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Sumrall ET, Keller AP, Shen Y, Loessner MJ. Structure and function of Listeria teichoic acids and their implications. Mol Microbiol 2020; 113:627-637. [PMID: 31972870 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.14472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Revised: 01/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Teichoic acids (TAs) are the most abundant glycopolymers in the cell wall of Listeria, an opportunistic Gram-positive pathogen that causes severe foodborne infections. Two different structural classes of Listeria TA exist: the polyribitolphosphate-based wall teichoic acid (WTA) that is covalently anchored to the peptidoglycan, and the polyglycerolphosphate-based lipoteichoic acid (LTA) that is tethered to the cytoplasmic membrane. While TA polymers govern many important physiological processes, the diverse glycosylation patterns of WTA result in a high degree of surface variation across the species and serovars of Listeria, which in turn bestows varying effects on fitness, biofilm formation, bacteriophage susceptibility and virulence. We review the advances made over the past two decades, and our current understanding of the relationship between TA structure and function. We describe the various types of TA that have been structurally determined to date, and discuss the genetic determinants known to be involved in TA glycosylation. We elaborate on surface proteins functionally related to TA decoration, as well as the molecular and analytical tools used to probe TAs. We anticipate that the growing knowledge of the Listeria surface chemistry will also be exploited to develop novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for this pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric T Sumrall
- Institute of Food, Nutrition and Health, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Anja P Keller
- Institute of Food, Nutrition and Health, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Yang Shen
- Institute of Food, Nutrition and Health, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Martin J Loessner
- Institute of Food, Nutrition and Health, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Khalifa M, Few LL, See Too WC. ChoK-ing the Pathogenic Bacteria: Potential of Human Choline Kinase Inhibitors as Antimicrobial Agents. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 2020:1823485. [PMID: 32695809 PMCID: PMC7368946 DOI: 10.1155/2020/1823485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Revised: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Novel antimicrobial agents are crucial to combat antibiotic resistance in pathogenic bacteria. Choline kinase (ChoK) in bacteria catalyzes the synthesis of phosphorylcholine, which is subsequently incorporated into the cell wall or outer membrane. In certain species of bacteria, phosphorylcholine is also used to synthesize membrane phosphatidylcholine. Numerous human ChoK inhibitors (ChoKIs) have been synthesized and tested for anticancer properties. Inhibition of S. pneumoniae ChoK by human ChoKIs showed a promising effect by distorting the cell wall and retarded the growth of this pathogen. Comparison of amino acid sequences at the catalytic sites of putative choline kinases from pathogenic bacteria and human enzymes revealed striking sequence conservation that supports the potential application of currently available ChoKIs for inhibiting bacterial enzymes. We also propose the combined use of ChoKIs and nanoparticles for targeted delivery to the pathogen while shielding the human host from any possible side effects of the inhibitors. More research should focus on the verification of putative bacterial ChoK activities and the characterization of ChoKIs with active enzymes. In conclusion, the presence of ChoK in a wide range of pathogenic bacteria and the distinct function of this enzyme has made it an attractive drug target. This review highlighted the possibility of "choking" bacterial ChoKs by using human ChoKIs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moad Khalifa
- School of Health Sciences, Health Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Ling Ling Few
- School of Health Sciences, Health Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Wei Cun See Too
- School of Health Sciences, Health Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
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Gordesli-Duatepe FP, Park BJ, Kawas LH, Abu-Lail NI. Atomic Force Microscopy Investigation of the Contributions of Listeria monocytogenes Cell-Wall Biomacromolecules to Their Adherence and Mechanics. J Phys Chem B 2020; 124:5872-5883. [PMID: 32544332 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.0c04025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In this work, the contributions of the pathogenic Listeria monocytogenes cell-wall biomacromolecules to the bacterial mechanics and adhesion to a model inert surface of silicon nitride in water were investigated by atomic force microscopy. Chemical ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) and biological enzymatic trypsin treatments of cells were performed to partially or totally remove the bacterial cell-wall proteins and carbohydrates. Removal of 48.2% proteins and 29.2% of carbohydrates from the cell-wall of the bacterium by the EDTA treatment resulted in a significant decrease in the length of the bacterial cell-wall biomacromolecules and an increase in the rigidity of the bacterial cells as predicted from fitting a model of steric repulsion to the force-distance approach data and classic Hertz model to the indentation-force data, respectively. In comparison, removal of almost all the cell-wall proteins (99.5% removal) and 8.6% of cell-wall carbohydrates by the trypsin treatment resulted in an increase in the elasticity of the bacterial cells, an increase in the extension of the cell-wall biomacromolecules, and a significant decrease in their apparent grafting densities. In addition, adhesion strength of native-untreated L. monocytogenes to silicon nitride in water decreased by 30% on average after the EDTA treatment and further decreased by 60% on average after the trypsin treatment, showing a positive correlation with the% removal of cell-wall proteins by the EDTA and trypsin treatments, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Pinar Gordesli-Duatepe
- Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, Faculty of Engineering, Izmir University of Economics, 35330 Izmir, Turkey
| | - Bong J Park
- The Gene and Linda Voiland School of Chemical Engineering and Bioengineering, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164, United States
| | - Leen H Kawas
- Department of Veterinary and Comparative Anatomy, Pharmacology, and Physiology, Washington State University Pullman, Washington 99164-6520, United States
| | - Nehal I Abu-Lail
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas 78249, United States
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39
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Multiple ways to kill bacteria via inhibiting novel cell wall or membrane targets. Future Med Chem 2020; 12:1253-1279. [PMID: 32538147 DOI: 10.4155/fmc-2020-0046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The rise of antibiotic-resistant infections has been well documented and the need for novel antibiotics cannot be overemphasized. US FDA approved antibiotics target only a small fraction of bacterial cell wall or membrane components, well-validated antimicrobial targets. In this review, we highlight small molecules that inhibit relatively unexplored cell wall and membrane targets. Some of these targets include teichoic acids-related proteins (DltA, LtaS, TarG and TarO), lipid II, Mur family enzymes, components of LPS assembly (MsbA, LptA, LptB and LptD), penicillin-binding protein 2a in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, outer membrane protein transport (such as LepB and BamA) and lipoprotein transport components (LspA, LolC, LolD and LolE). Inhibitors of SecA, cell division protein, FtsZ and compounds that kill persister cells via membrane targeting are also covered.
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40
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Dekaboruah E, Suryavanshi MV, Chettri D, Verma AK. Human microbiome: an academic update on human body site specific surveillance and its possible role. Arch Microbiol 2020; 202:2147-2167. [PMID: 32524177 PMCID: PMC7284171 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-020-01931-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2019] [Revised: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Human body is inhabited by vast number of microorganisms which form a complex ecological community and influence the human physiology, in the aspect of both health and diseases. These microbes show a relationship with the human immune system based on coevolution and, therefore, have a tremendous potential to contribute to the metabolic function, protection against the pathogen and in providing nutrients and energy. However, of these microbes, many carry out some functions that play a crucial role in the host physiology and may even cause diseases. The introduction of new molecular technologies such as transcriptomics, metagenomics and metabolomics has contributed to the upliftment on the findings of the microbiome linked to the humans in the recent past. These rapidly developing technologies are boosting our capacity to understand about the human body-associated microbiome and its association with the human health. The highlights of this review are inclusion of how to derive microbiome data and the interaction between human and associated microbiome to provide an insight on the role played by the microbiome in biological processes of the human body as well as the development of major human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elakshi Dekaboruah
- Department of Microbiology, Sikkim University, Gangtok, Sikkim, 737102, India
| | | | - Dixita Chettri
- Department of Microbiology, Sikkim University, Gangtok, Sikkim, 737102, India
| | - Anil Kumar Verma
- Department of Microbiology, Sikkim University, Gangtok, Sikkim, 737102, India.
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41
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Wenzel CQ, Mills DC, Dobruchowska JM, Vlach J, Nothaft H, Nation P, Azadi P, Melville SB, Carlson RW, Feldman MF, Szymanski CM. An atypical lipoteichoic acid from Clostridium perfringens elicits a broadly cross-reactive and protective immune response. J Biol Chem 2020; 295:9513-9530. [PMID: 32424044 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra119.009978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Revised: 05/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens is a leading cause of food-poisoning and causes avian necrotic enteritis, posing a significant problem to both the poultry industry and human health. No effective vaccine against C. perfringens is currently available. Using an antiserum screen of mutants generated from a C. perfringens transposon-mutant library, here we identified an immunoreactive antigen that was lost in a putative glycosyltransferase mutant, suggesting that this antigen is likely a glycoconjugate. Following injection of formalin-fixed whole cells of C. perfringens HN13 (a laboratory strain) and JGS4143 (chicken isolate) intramuscularly into chickens, the HN13-derived antiserum was cross-reactive in immunoblots with all tested 32 field isolates, whereas only 5 of 32 isolates were recognized by JGS4143-derived antiserum. The immunoreactive antigens from both HN13 and JGS4143 were isolated, and structural analysis by MALDI-TOF-MS, GC-MS, and 2D NMR revealed that both were atypical lipoteichoic acids (LTAs) with poly-(β1→4)-ManNAc backbones substituted with phosphoethanolamine. However, although the ManNAc residues in JGS4143 LTA were phosphoethanolamine-modified, a few of these residues were instead modified with phosphoglycerol in the HN13 LTA. The JGS4143 LTA also had a terminal ribose and ManNAc instead of ManN in the core region, suggesting that these differences may contribute to the broadly cross-reactive response elicited by HN13. In a passive-protection chicken experiment, oral challenge with C. perfringens JGS4143 lead to 22% survival, whereas co-gavage with JGS4143 and α-HN13 antiserum resulted in 89% survival. This serum also induced bacterial killing in opsonophagocytosis assays, suggesting that HN13 LTA is an attractive target for future vaccine-development studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cory Q Wenzel
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.,VaxAlta Inc., Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.,Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Dominic C Mills
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | | | - Jiri Vlach
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Harald Nothaft
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.,VaxAlta Inc., Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.,Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Patrick Nation
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Parastoo Azadi
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Stephen B Melville
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Russell W Carlson
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Mario F Feldman
- VaxAlta Inc., Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.,Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Christine M Szymanski
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada .,VaxAlta Inc., Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.,Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.,Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
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42
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Zhang B, Liu X, Lambert E, Mas G, Hiller S, Veening JW, Perez C. Structure of a proton-dependent lipid transporter involved in lipoteichoic acids biosynthesis. Nat Struct Mol Biol 2020; 27:561-569. [PMID: 32367070 DOI: 10.1038/s41594-020-0425-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2019] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Lipoteichoic acids (LTAs) are essential cell-wall components in Gram-positive bacteria, including the human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus, contributing to cell adhesion, cell division and antibiotic resistance. Genetic evidence has suggested that LtaA is the flippase that mediates the translocation of the lipid-linked disaccharide that anchors LTA to the cell membrane, a rate-limiting step in S. aureus LTA biogenesis. Here, we present the structure of LtaA, describe its flipping mechanism and show its functional relevance for S. aureus fitness. We demonstrate that LtaA is a proton-coupled antiporter flippase that contributes to S. aureus survival under physiological acidic conditions. Our results provide foundations for the development of new strategies to counteract S. aureus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Zhang
- Biozentrum, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Xue Liu
- Department of Fundamental Microbiology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | | | | | | - Jan-Willem Veening
- Department of Fundamental Microbiology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Camilo Perez
- Biozentrum, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
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43
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Walter A, Unsleber S, Rismondo J, Jorge AM, Peschel A, Gründling A, Mayer C. Phosphoglycerol-type wall and lipoteichoic acids are enantiomeric polymers differentiated by the stereospecific glycerophosphodiesterase GlpQ. J Biol Chem 2020; 295:4024-4034. [PMID: 32047114 PMCID: PMC7086022 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra120.012566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2020] [Revised: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The cell envelope of Gram-positive bacteria generally comprises two types of polyanionic polymers linked to either peptidoglycan (wall teichoic acids; WTA) or to membrane glycolipids (lipoteichoic acids; LTA). In some bacteria, including Bacillus subtilis strain 168, both WTA and LTA are glycerolphosphate polymers yet are synthesized through different pathways and have distinct but incompletely understood morphogenetic functions during cell elongation and division. We show here that the exolytic sn-glycerol-3-phosphodiesterase GlpQ can discriminate between B. subtilis WTA and LTA. GlpQ completely degraded unsubstituted WTA, which lacks substituents at the glycerol residues, by sequentially removing glycerolphosphates from the free end of the polymer up to the peptidoglycan linker. In contrast, GlpQ could not degrade unsubstituted LTA unless it was partially precleaved, allowing access of GlpQ to the other end of the polymer, which, in the intact molecule, is protected by a connection to the lipid anchor. Differences in stereochemistry between WTA and LTA have been suggested previously on the basis of differences in their biosynthetic precursors and chemical degradation products. The differential cleavage of WTA and LTA by GlpQ reported here represents the first direct evidence that they are enantiomeric polymers: WTA is made of sn-glycerol-3-phosphate, and LTA is made of sn-glycerol-1-phosphate. Their distinct stereochemistries reflect the dissimilar physiological and immunogenic properties of WTA and LTA. It also enables differential degradation of the two polymers within the same envelope compartment in vivo, particularly under phosphate-limiting conditions, when B. subtilis specifically degrades WTA and replaces it with phosphate-free teichuronic acids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Axel Walter
- Microbiology/Glycobiology, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Sandra Unsleber
- Microbiology/Glycobiology, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Jeanine Rismondo
- Section of Molecular Microbiology and Medical Research Council Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Ana Maria Jorge
- Infection Biology, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Andreas Peschel
- Infection Biology, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Angelika Gründling
- Section of Molecular Microbiology and Medical Research Council Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Christoph Mayer
- Microbiology/Glycobiology, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
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44
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Sumrall ET, Schefer CRE, Rismondo J, Schneider SR, Boulos S, Gründling A, Loessner MJ, Shen Y. Galactosylated wall teichoic acid, but not lipoteichoic acid, retains InlB on the surface of serovar 4b Listeria monocytogenes. Mol Microbiol 2020; 113:638-649. [PMID: 32185836 PMCID: PMC7155027 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.14455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Revised: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Listeria monocytogenes is a Gram-positive, intracellular pathogen harboring the surface-associated virulence factor InlB, which enables entry into certain host cells. Structurally diverse wall teichoic acids (WTAs), which can also be differentially glycosylated, determine the antigenic basis of the various Listeria serovars. WTAs have many physiological functions; they can serve as receptors for bacteriophages, and provide a substrate for binding of surface proteins such as InlB. In contrast, the membrane-anchored lipoteichoic acids (LTAs) do not show significant variation and do not contribute to serovar determination. It was previously demonstrated that surface-associated InlB non-covalently adheres to both WTA and LTA, mediating its retention on the cell wall. Here, we demonstrate that in a highly virulent serovar 4b strain, two genes gtlB and gttB are responsible for galactosylation of LTA and WTA respectively. We evaluated the InlB surface retention in mutants lacking each of these two genes, and found that only galactosylated WTA is required for InlB surface presentation and function, cellular invasiveness and phage adsorption, while galactosylated LTA plays no role thereof. Our findings demonstrate that a simple pathogen-defining serovar antigen, that mediates bacteriophage susceptibility, is necessary and sufficient to sustain the function of an important virulence factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric T Sumrall
- Institute of Food, Nutrition and Health, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Jeanine Rismondo
- Section of Microbiology and MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | | | - Samy Boulos
- Institute of Food, Nutrition and Health, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Angelika Gründling
- Section of Microbiology and MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Martin J Loessner
- Institute of Food, Nutrition and Health, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Yang Shen
- Institute of Food, Nutrition and Health, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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45
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Abstract
Industrial biotechnology is a continuously expanding field focused on the application of microorganisms to produce chemicals using renewable sources as substrates. Currently, an increasing interest in new versatile processes, able to utilize a variety of substrates to obtain diverse products, can be observed. A robust microbial strain is critical in the creation of such processes. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are used to produce a wide variety of chemicals with high commercial interest. Lactic acid (LA) is the most predominant industrial product obtained from LAB fermentations, and its production is forecasted to rise as the result of the increasing demand of polylactic acid. Hence, the creation of new ways to revalorize LA production processes is of high interest and could further enhance its economic value. Therefore, this review explores some co-products of LA fermentations, derived from LAB, with special focus on bacteriocins, lipoteichoic acid, and probiotics. Finally, a multi-product process involving LA and the other compounds of interest is proposed.
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46
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Lima BP, Kho K, Nairn BL, Davies JR, Svensäter G, Chen R, Steffes A, Vreeman GW, Meredith TC, Herzberg MC. Streptococcus gordonii Type I Lipoteichoic Acid Contributes to Surface Protein Biogenesis. mSphere 2019; 4:e00814-19. [PMID: 31801844 PMCID: PMC6893214 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00814-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Lipoteichoic acid (LTA) is an abundant polymer of the Gram-positive bacterial cell envelope and is essential for many species. Whereas the exact function of LTA has not been elucidated, loss of LTA in some species affects hydrophobicity, biofilm formation, and cell division. Using a viable LTA-deficient strain of the human oral commensal Streptococcus gordonii, we demonstrated that LTA plays an important role in surface protein presentation. Cell wall fractions derived from the wild-type and LTA-deficient strains of S. gordonii were analyzed using label-free mass spectroscopy. Comparisons showed that the abundances of many proteins differed, including (i) SspA, SspB, and S. gordonii 0707 (SGO_0707) (biofilm formation); (ii) FtsE (cell division); (iii) Pbp1a and Pbp2a (cell wall biosynthesis and remodeling); and (iv) DegP (envelope stress response). These changes in cell surface protein presentation appear to explain our observations of altered cell envelope homeostasis, biofilm formation, and adhesion to eukaryotic cells, without affecting binding and coaggregation with other bacterial species, and provide insight into the phenotypes revealed by the loss of LTA in other species of Gram-positive bacteria. We also characterized the chemical structure of the LTA expressed by S. gordonii Similarly to Streptococcus suis, S. gordonii produced a complex type I LTA, decorated with multiple d-alanylations and glycosylations. Hence, the S. gordonii LTA appears to orchestrate expression and presentation of cell surface-associated proteins and functions.IMPORTANCE Discovered over a half-century ago, lipoteichoic acid (LTA) is an abundant polymer found on the surface of Gram-positive bacteria. Although LTA is essential for the survival of many Gram-positive species, knowledge of how LTA contributes to bacterial physiology has remained elusive. Recently, LTA-deficient strains have been generated in some Gram-positive species, including the human oral commensal Streptococcus gordonii The significance of our research is that we utilized an LTA-deficient strain of S. gordonii to address why LTA is physiologically important to Gram-positive bacteria. We demonstrate that in S. gordonii, LTA plays an important role in the presentation of many cell surface-associated proteins, contributing to cell envelope homeostasis, cell-to-cell interactions in biofilms, and adhesion to eukaryotic cells. These data may broadly reflect a physiological role of LTA in Gram-positive bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno P Lima
- Department of Diagnostic and Biological Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Kelvin Kho
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Brittany L Nairn
- Department of Diagnostic and Biological Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Julia R Davies
- Department of Oral Biology, Faculty of Odontology, Malmo University, Malmo, Sweden
| | - Gunnel Svensäter
- Department of Oral Biology, Faculty of Odontology, Malmo University, Malmo, Sweden
| | - Ruoqiong Chen
- Department of Diagnostic and Biological Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Amanda Steffes
- Department of Diagnostic and Biological Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Gerrit W Vreeman
- Department of Diagnostic and Biological Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Timothy C Meredith
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Mark C Herzberg
- Department of Diagnostic and Biological Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
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47
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Dalal V, Kumar P, Rakhaminov G, Qamar A, Fan X, Hunter H, Tomar S, Golemi-Kotra D, Kumar P. Repurposing an Ancient Protein Core Structure: Structural Studies on FmtA, a Novel Esterase of Staphylococcus aureus. J Mol Biol 2019; 431:3107-3123. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2019.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2018] [Revised: 06/15/2019] [Accepted: 06/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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48
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Spontaneously Arising Streptococcus mutans Variants with Reduced Susceptibility to Chlorhexidine Display Genetic Defects and Diminished Fitness. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2019; 63:AAC.00161-19. [PMID: 31036688 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00161-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2019] [Accepted: 04/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Chlorhexidine (CHX) has been used to control dental caries caused by acid-tolerant bacteria such as Streptococcus mutans since the 1970s. Repeat CHX exposure for other bacterial species results in the development of variants with reduced susceptibility that also become more resistant to other antimicrobials. It has not been tested if such variants arise when streptococci are exposed to CHX. Here, we passaged S. mutans in increasing concentrations of CHX and isolated spontaneously arising reduced susceptibility variants (RSVs) from separate lineages that have MICs that are up to 3-fold greater than the parental strain. The RSVs have increased growth rates at neutral pH and under acidic conditions in the presence of CHX but accumulate less biomass in biofilms. RSVs display higher MICs for daptomycin and clindamycin but increased sensitivity to dental-relevant antimicrobials triclosan and sodium fluoride. Plate-based assays for competition with health-associated oral streptococci revealed decreased bacteriocin production by the RSVs, increased sensitivity to hydrogen peroxide, and diminished competitive fitness in a human-derived ex vivo biofilm consortium. Whole-genome sequencing identified common single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within a diacylglycerol kinase homolog and a glycolipid synthesis enzyme, which could alter the accumulation of lipoteichoic acids and other envelope constituents, as well as a variety of mutations in other genes. Collectively, these findings confirm that S. mutans and likely other streptococci can develop tolerance to CHX but that increased tolerance comes at a fitness cost, such that CHX-induced variants that spontaneously arise in the human oral cavity may not persist.
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49
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Castillo Pedraza MC, Rosalen PL, de Castilho ARF, Freires IDA, de Sales Leite L, Faustoferri RC, Quivey RG, Klein MI. Inactivation of Streptococcus mutans genes lytST and dltAD impairs its pathogenicity in vivo. J Oral Microbiol 2019; 11:1607505. [PMID: 31143407 PMCID: PMC6522913 DOI: 10.1080/20002297.2019.1607505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2019] [Revised: 04/08/2019] [Accepted: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Streptococcus mutans orchestrates the development of a biofilm that causes dental caries in the presence of dietary sucrose, and, in the bloodstream, S. mutans can cause systemic infections. The development of a cariogenic biofilm is dependent on the formation of an extracellular matrix rich in exopolysaccharides, which contains extracellular DNA (eDNA) and lipoteichoic acids (LTAs). While the exopolysaccharides are virulence markers, the involvement of genes linked to eDNA and LTAs metabolism in the pathogenicity of S. mutans remains unclear. Objective and Design: In this study, a parental strain S. mutans UA159 and derivative strains carrying single gene deletions were used to investigate the role of eDNA (ΔlytS and ΔlytT), LTA (ΔdltA and ΔdltD), and insoluble exopolysaccharides (ΔgtfB) in virulence in a rodent model of dental caries (rats) and a systemic infection model (Galleria mellonella larvae). Results: Fewer carious lesions were observed on smooth and sulcal surfaces of enamel and dentin of the rats infected with ∆lytS, ∆dltD, and ΔgtfB (vs. the parental strain). Moreover, strains carrying gene deletions prevented the killing of larvae (vs. the parental strain). Conclusions: Altogether, these findings indicate that inactivation of lytST and dltAD impaired S. mutans cariogenicity and virulence in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Midian C Castillo Pedraza
- Department of Dental Materials and Prosthodontics, Sao Paulo State University (Unesp), School of Dentistry, Araraquara, Brazil
| | - Pedro L Rosalen
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Piracicaba Dental School, University of Campinas - UNICAMP, Piracicaba, Brazil
| | - Aline Rogéria Freire de Castilho
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Piracicaba Dental School, University of Campinas - UNICAMP, Piracicaba, Brazil.,Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Piracicaba Dental School, University of Campinas - UNICAMP, Piracicaba, Brazil
| | - Irlan de Almeida Freires
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Piracicaba Dental School, University of Campinas - UNICAMP, Piracicaba, Brazil
| | - Luana de Sales Leite
- Department of Dental Materials and Prosthodontics, Sao Paulo State University (Unesp), School of Dentistry, Araraquara, Brazil
| | | | - Robert G Quivey
- Center for Oral Biology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Marlise I Klein
- Department of Dental Materials and Prosthodontics, Sao Paulo State University (Unesp), School of Dentistry, Araraquara, Brazil
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Extracellular electron transfer features of Gram-positive bacteria. Anal Chim Acta 2019; 1076:32-47. [PMID: 31203962 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2019.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Revised: 04/23/2019] [Accepted: 05/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Electroactive microorganisms possess the unique ability to transfer electrons to or from solid phase electron conductors, e.g., electrodes or minerals, through various physiological mechanisms. The processes are commonly known as extracellular electron transfer and broadly harnessed in microbial electrochemical systems, such as microbial biosensors, microbial electrosynthesis, or microbial fuel cells. Apart from a few model microorganisms, the nature of the microbe-electrode conductive interaction is poorly understood for most of the electroactive species. The interaction determines the efficiency and a potential scaling up of bioelectrochemical systems. Gram-positive bacteria generally have a thick electron non-conductive cell wall and are believed to exhibit weak extracellular electron shuttling activity. This review highlights reported research accomplishments on electroactive Gram-positive bacteria. The use of electron-conducting polymers as mediators is considered as one promising strategy to enhance the electron transfer efficiency up to application scale. In view of the recent progress in understanding the molecular aspects of the extracellular electron transfer mechanisms of Enterococcus faecalis, the electron transfer properties of this bacterium are especially focused on. Fundamental knowledge on the nature of microbial extracellular electron transfer and its possibilities can provide insight in interspecies electron transfer and biogeochemical cycling of elements in nature. Additionally, a comprehensive understanding of cell-electrode interactions may help in overcoming insufficient electron transfer and restricted operational performance of various bioelectrochemical systems and facilitate their practical applications.
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