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Qureshi A, Connolly JB. Bioinformatic and literature assessment of toxicity and allergenicity of a CRISPR-Cas9 engineered gene drive to control Anopheles gambiae the mosquito vector of human malaria. Malar J 2023; 22:234. [PMID: 37580703 PMCID: PMC10426224 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-023-04665-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/16/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Population suppression gene drive is currently being evaluated, including via environmental risk assessment (ERA), for malaria vector control. One such gene drive involves the dsxFCRISPRh transgene encoding (i) hCas9 endonuclease, (ii) T1 guide RNA (gRNA) targeting the doublesex locus, and (iii) DsRed fluorescent marker protein, in genetically-modified mosquitoes (GMMs). Problem formulation, the first stage of ERA, for environmental releases of dsxFCRISPRh previously identified nine potential harms to the environment or health that could occur, should expressed products of the transgene cause allergenicity or toxicity. METHODS Amino acid sequences of hCas9 and DsRed were interrogated against those of toxins or allergens from NCBI, UniProt, COMPARE and AllergenOnline bioinformatic databases and the gRNA was compared with microRNAs from the miRBase database for potential impacts on gene expression associated with toxicity or allergenicity. PubMed was also searched for any evidence of toxicity or allergenicity of Cas9 or DsRed, or of the donor organisms from which these products were originally derived. RESULTS While Cas9 nuclease activity can be toxic to some cell types in vitro and hCas9 was found to share homology with the prokaryotic toxin VapC, there was no evidence from previous studies of a risk of toxicity to humans and other animals from hCas9. Although hCas9 did contain an 8-mer epitope found in the latex allergen Hev b 9, the full amino acid sequence of hCas9 was not homologous to any known allergens. Combined with a lack of evidence in the literature of Cas9 allergenicity, this indicated negligible risk to humans of allergenicity from hCas9. No matches were found between the gRNA and microRNAs from either Anopheles or humans. Moreover, potential exposure to dsxFCRISPRh transgenic proteins from environmental releases was assessed as negligible. CONCLUSIONS Bioinformatic and literature assessments found no convincing evidence to suggest that transgenic products expressed from dsxFCRISPRh were allergens or toxins, indicating that environmental releases of this population suppression gene drive for malaria vector control should not result in any increased allergenicity or toxicity in humans or animals. These results should also inform evaluations of other GMMs being developed for vector control and in vivo clinical applications of CRISPR-Cas9.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alima Qureshi
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, Silwood Park, Sunninghill, Ascot, UK
| | - John B Connolly
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, Silwood Park, Sunninghill, Ascot, UK.
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Ladics GS. Assessment of the potential allergenicity of genetically-engineered food crops. J Immunotoxicol 2018; 16:43-53. [PMID: 30409058 DOI: 10.1080/1547691x.2018.1533904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
An extensive safety assessment process exists for genetically-engineered (GE) crops. The assessment includes an evaluation of the introduced protein as well as the crop containing the protein with the goal of demonstrating the GE crop is "as-safe-as" non-GE crops in the food supply. One of the evaluations for GE crops is to assess the expressed protein for allergenic potential. Currently, no single factor is recognized as a predictor for protein allergenicity. Therefore, a weight-of-the-evidence approach, which accounts for a variety of factors and approaches for an overall assessment of allergenic potential, is conducted. This assessment includes an evaluation of the history of exposure and safety of the gene(s) source; protein structure (e.g. amino acid sequence identity to human allergens); stability of the protein to pepsin digestion in vitro; heat stability of the protein; glycosylation status; and when appropriate, specific IgE binding studies with sera from relevant clinically allergic subjects. Since GE crops were first commercialized over 20 years ago, there is no proof that the introduced novel protein(s) in any commercialized GE food crop has caused food allergy.
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Farkas E, Szekacs A, Kovacs B, Olah M, Horvath R, Szekacs I. Label-free optical biosensor for real-time monitoring the cytotoxicity of xenobiotics: A proof of principle study on glyphosate. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2018; 351:80-89. [PMID: 29518655 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2018.02.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2017] [Revised: 02/08/2018] [Accepted: 02/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
Rapid and inexpensive biosensor technologies allowing real-time analysis of biomolecular and cellular events have become the basis of next-generation cell-based screening techniques. Our work opens up novel opportunities in the application of the high-throughput label-free Epic BenchTop optical biosensor in cell toxicity studies. The Epic technology records integrated cellular responses about changes in cell morphology and dynamic mass redistribution of cellular contents at the 100-150 nm layer above the sensor surface. The aim of the present study was to apply this novel technology to identify the effect of the herbicide Roundup Classic, its co-formulant polyethoxylated tallow amine (POEA), and its active ingredient glyphosate, on MC3T3-E1 cells adhered on the biosensor surface. The half maximal inhibitory concentrations of Roundup Classic, POEA and glyphosate upon 1 h of exposure were found to be 0.024%, 0.021% and 0.163% in serum-containing medium and 0.028%, 0.019% and 0.538% in serum-free conditions, respectively (at concentrations equivalent to the diluted Roundup solution). These results showed a good correlation with parallel end-point assays, demonstrating the outstanding utility of the Epic technique in cytotoxicity screening, allowing not only high-throughput, real-time detection, but also reduced assay run time and cytotoxicity assessment at end-points far before cell death would occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eniko Farkas
- Nanobiosensorics Momentum Group, Institute of Technical Physics and Materials Science, Centre for Energy Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Konkoly-Thege M. út 29-33, H-1120 Budapest, Hungary; Subdoctoral School of Molecular and Nanotechnologies, Chemical Engineering and Material Science Doctoral School, University of Pannonia, Egyetem u.10, H-8200 Veszprém, Hungary
| | - Andras Szekacs
- Agro-Environmental Research Institute, National Agricultural Research and Innovation Centre, Herman Ottó u. 15, H-1022 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Boglarka Kovacs
- Nanobiosensorics Momentum Group, Institute of Technical Physics and Materials Science, Centre for Energy Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Konkoly-Thege M. út 29-33, H-1120 Budapest, Hungary; Subdoctoral School of Molecular and Nanotechnologies, Chemical Engineering and Material Science Doctoral School, University of Pannonia, Egyetem u.10, H-8200 Veszprém, Hungary
| | - Marianna Olah
- Agro-Environmental Research Institute, National Agricultural Research and Innovation Centre, Herman Ottó u. 15, H-1022 Budapest, Hungary; Doctoral School of Environmental Sciences, Szent István University, Páter K. u.1, H-2100 Gödöllő, Hungary
| | - Robert Horvath
- Nanobiosensorics Momentum Group, Institute of Technical Physics and Materials Science, Centre for Energy Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Konkoly-Thege M. út 29-33, H-1120 Budapest, Hungary.
| | - Inna Szekacs
- Nanobiosensorics Momentum Group, Institute of Technical Physics and Materials Science, Centre for Energy Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Konkoly-Thege M. út 29-33, H-1120 Budapest, Hungary.
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Lu M, Jin Y, Cerny R, Ballmer-Weber B, Goodman RE. Combining 2-DE immunoblots and mass spectrometry to identify putative soybean (Glycine max) allergens. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 116:207-215. [PMID: 29673863 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.04.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2018] [Accepted: 04/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Soybean is recognized as a commonly allergenic food, but the identity of important allergens is not well studied. Recently, some global regulatory agencies started requiring quantitative analysis of individual allergens, including unproven allergens, as part of the risk assessment for genetically engineered (GE) soybeans. We sought to identify soybean proteins that bind IgE from any of 10 individual soybean-sensitized subjects. Soybean IgE binding proteins were identified by 2-DE immunoblots using sera from four soy-allergic and plasma from six soy-sensitized human subjects. Corresponding spots were excised from stained gels, digested, and analyzed using a quadrupole TOF Synapt G2-S tandem mass spectrometer. Results showed the major IgE binding proteins were subunits of either β-conglycinin (Gly m 5) or glycinin (Gly m 6). Soybean Kunitz trypsin inhibitor (SKTI) was a significant IgE binding protein for four subjects. Soybean agglutinin, seed biotinylated protein (SBP) of 65 kDa, late embryogenesis protein (LEP), and sucrose-binding protein were identified as IgE binding only for soy-sensitized subjects. We conclude that the major soybean allergens are isoforms of Gly m 5, Gly m 6, and possibly SKTI and that requirements for quantitative measurement of proteins that are not clear allergens is not relevant to safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei Lu
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 1901 North 21st Street, Lincoln, NE, 68588, USA
| | - Yuan Jin
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 1901 North 21st Street, Lincoln, NE, 68588, USA
| | - Ron Cerny
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 639 N. 12th Street, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
| | - Barbara Ballmer-Weber
- Allergy Unit, Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Richard E Goodman
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 1901 North 21st Street, Lincoln, NE, 68588, USA.
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Lu M, Jin Y, Ballmer-Weber B, Goodman RE. A comparative study of human IgE binding to proteins of a genetically modified (GM) soybean and six non-GM soybeans grown in multiple locations. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 112:216-223. [PMID: 29307601 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2017] [Revised: 12/28/2017] [Accepted: 01/01/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Prior to commercialization, genetically modified (GM) crops are evaluated to determine the allergenicity of the newly expressed protein. Some regulators require an evaluation of endogenous allergens in commonly allergenic crops including soybean to determine if genetic transformation increased endogenous allergen concentrations, even asking for IgE testing using sera from individual sensitized subjects. Little is known about the variability of the expression of endogenous allergens among non-GM varieties or under different environmental conditions. We tested IgE binding to endogenous allergenic proteins in an experimental non-commercial GM line, a non-GM near-isoline control, and five non-GM commercial soybean lines replicated at three geographically separated locations. One-dimensional (1D) and two-dimensional (2D) immunoblotting and ELISA were performed using serum or plasma from eleven soybean allergic patients. The results of immunoblots and ELISA showed no significant differences in IgE binding between the GM line and its non-GM near-isoline control. However, some distinct differences in IgE binding patterns were observed among the non-GM commercial soybean lines and between different locations, highlighting the inherent variability in endogenous allergenic proteins. Understanding the potential variability in the levels of endogenous allergens is necessary to establish a standard of acceptance for GM soybeans compared to non-GM soybean events and lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei Lu
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Nebraska Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA.
| | - Yuan Jin
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Nebraska Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA.
| | - Barbara Ballmer-Weber
- Allergy Unit, Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.
| | - Richard E Goodman
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Nebraska Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA.
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Dunn SE, Vicini JL, Glenn KC, Fleischer DM, Greenhawt MJ. The allergenicity of genetically modified foods from genetically engineered crops: A narrative and systematic review. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2017; 119:214-222.e3. [PMID: 28890018 DOI: 10.1016/j.anai.2017.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2017] [Revised: 07/05/2017] [Accepted: 07/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S Eliza Dunn
- Medical Sciences and Outreach Lead, Monsanto Company, St Louis, Missouri; Division of Emergency Medicine, Washington University, St Louis, Missouri
| | - John L Vicini
- Food and Feed Safety Scientific Affairs Lead, Monsanto Company, St Louis, Missouri
| | - Kevin C Glenn
- Allergenicity/Pipeline Issues Management Lead, Monsanto Company, St Louis, Missouri
| | - David M Fleischer
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Allergy and Immunology, Children's Hospital Colorado, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Matthew J Greenhawt
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Allergy and Immunology, Children's Hospital Colorado, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado.
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Geng T, Stojšin D, Liu K, Schaalje B, Postin C, Ward J, Wang Y, Liu ZL, Li B, Glenn K. Natural Variability of Allergen Levels in Conventional Soybeans: Assessing Variation across North and South America from Five Production Years. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2017; 65:463-472. [PMID: 27997188 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b04542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Soybean (Glycine max L. Merrill) is one of eight major allergenic foods with endogenous proteins identified as allergens. To better understand the natural variability of five soybean allergens (Gly m 4, Gly m 5, Gly m 6, Gly m Bd 28k, and Gly m Bd 30k), validated enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) were developed. These ELISAs measured allergens in 604 soybean samples collected from locations in North and South America over five growing seasons (2009-2013/2014) and including 37 conventional varieties. Levels of these five allergens varied 5-19-fold. Multivariate statistical analyses and pairwise comparisons show that environmental factors have a larger effect on allergen levels than genetic factors. Therefore, from year to year, consumers are exposed to highly variable levels of allergens in soy-based foods, bringing into question whether quantitative comparison of endogenous allergen levels of new genetically modified soybean adds meaningful information to their overall safety risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Geng
- Monsanto Company, 800 North Lindbergh Boulevard, St. Louis, Missouri 63167, United States
| | - Duška Stojšin
- Monsanto Company, 800 North Lindbergh Boulevard, St. Louis, Missouri 63167, United States
| | - Kang Liu
- Monsanto Company, 800 North Lindbergh Boulevard, St. Louis, Missouri 63167, United States
| | - Bruce Schaalje
- Monsanto Company, 800 North Lindbergh Boulevard, St. Louis, Missouri 63167, United States
| | - Cody Postin
- Monsanto Company, 800 North Lindbergh Boulevard, St. Louis, Missouri 63167, United States
| | - Jason Ward
- Monsanto Company, 800 North Lindbergh Boulevard, St. Louis, Missouri 63167, United States
| | - Yongcheng Wang
- Monsanto Company, 800 North Lindbergh Boulevard, St. Louis, Missouri 63167, United States
| | - Zi Lucy Liu
- Monsanto Company, 800 North Lindbergh Boulevard, St. Louis, Missouri 63167, United States
| | - Bin Li
- Monsanto Company, 800 North Lindbergh Boulevard, St. Louis, Missouri 63167, United States
| | - Kevin Glenn
- Monsanto Company, 800 North Lindbergh Boulevard, St. Louis, Missouri 63167, United States
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Natarajan S, Khan F, Song Q, Lakshman S, Cregan P, Scott R, Shipe E, Garrett W. Characterization of Soybean Storage and Allergen Proteins Affected by Environmental and Genetic Factors. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2016; 64:1433-45. [PMID: 26807503 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b05172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
There is limited information on the influence of genetic and environmental variability on soybean protein composition. This study aimed to determine the role of genotype (G), environments (E), and the interrelationship of genotype and environment (G×E) on soybean seed protein. Three sets of nine soybean genotypes were grown in replicated trials at Maryland, South Carolina, and South Dakota. At each location, the nine genotypes were grown with two planting/sowing dates. We applied two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry to study the variability of soybean storage and allergen proteins. Statistical analysis of 47 storage and 8 allergen proteins, in terms of differentially expressed protein spots significant at the p<0.005 level, was performed. We found more spots that showed statistically significant differences in expression among E compared to G and G×E interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Savithiry Natarajan
- Soybean Genomics and Improvement Laboratory, USDA-ARS , Beltsville, Maryland 20705, United States
| | - Farooq Khan
- Department of Plant Science & Landscape Architecture, University of Maryland , College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Qijian Song
- Soybean Genomics and Improvement Laboratory, USDA-ARS , Beltsville, Maryland 20705, United States
| | - Sukla Lakshman
- Diet, Genomics and Immunology Laboratory, USDA-ARS , Beltsville, Maryland 20705, United States
| | - Perry Cregan
- Soybean Genomics and Improvement Laboratory, USDA-ARS , Beltsville, Maryland 20705, United States
| | - Roy Scott
- Crop Production and Protection, Oilseeds & Bioscience, USDA-ARS , Beltsville, Maryland 20705, United States
| | - Emerson Shipe
- Clemson University , Department of Entomology, Soils, & Plant Sciences, Clemson, South Carolina 29634, United States
| | - Wesley Garrett
- Animal Biosciences and Biotechnology Laboratory, USDA-ARS , Beltsville, Maryland 20705, United States
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Ladics GS, Fry J, Goodman R, Herouet-Guicheney C, Hoffmann-Sommergruber K, Madsen CB, Penninks A, Pomés A, Roggen EL, Smit J, Wal JM. Allergic sensitization: screening methods. Clin Transl Allergy 2014; 4:13. [PMID: 24739743 PMCID: PMC3990213 DOI: 10.1186/2045-7022-4-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2013] [Accepted: 03/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Experimental in silico, in vitro, and rodent models for screening and predicting protein sensitizing potential are discussed, including whether there is evidence of new sensitizations and allergies since the introduction of genetically modified crops in 1996, the importance of linear versus conformational epitopes, and protein families that become allergens. Some common challenges for predicting protein sensitization are addressed: (a) exposure routes; (b) frequency and dose of exposure; (c) dose-response relationships; (d) role of digestion, food processing, and the food matrix; (e) role of infection; (f) role of the gut microbiota; (g) influence of the structure and physicochemical properties of the protein; and (h) the genetic background and physiology of consumers. The consensus view is that sensitization screening models are not yet validated to definitively predict the de novo sensitizing potential of a novel protein. However, they would be extremely useful in the discovery and research phases of understanding the mechanisms of food allergy development, and may prove fruitful to provide information regarding potential allergenicity risk assessment of future products on a case by case basis. These data and findings were presented at a 2012 international symposium in Prague organized by the Protein Allergenicity Technical Committee of the International Life Sciences Institute's Health and Environmental Sciences Institute.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory S Ladics
- DuPont Pioneer Agricultural Biotechnology, DuPont Experimental Station, 200 Powder Mill Road, Wilmington, DE 19880-0400, USA
| | - Jeremy Fry
- ProImmune Limited, The Magdalen Centre, The Oxford Science Park, Robert Robinson Avenue, Oxford OX4 4GA, United Kingdom
| | - Richard Goodman
- Department of Food Science & Technology, Food Allergy Research and Resource Program, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, 143 Food Industry Complex, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
| | | | - Karin Hoffmann-Sommergruber
- Department of Pathophysiology and Allergy Research, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Charlotte B Madsen
- Department of Toxicology and Risk Assessment, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, 19, Mørkhøj Bygade, DK-2860 Søborg, Denmark
| | - André Penninks
- TNO Triskelion BV, Utrechtseweg 48, 3700 AV Zeist, Netherlands
| | - Anna Pomés
- Indoor Biotechnologies, Inc, 1216 Harris Street, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Erwin L Roggen
- Novozymes AS and 3Rs Management and Consultancy, Krogshoejvej 36, 2880 Bagsvaerd, Denmark
| | - Joost Smit
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 104, 3508 TD Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Jean-Michel Wal
- AgroParisTech, Department SVS, 16 rue Claude Bernard, F-75231, Paris Cedex 05, France
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Goodman RE, Hefle SL. Gaining perspective on the allergenicity assessment of genetically modified food crops. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2014; 1:561-78. [DOI: 10.1586/1744666x.1.4.561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Stevenson SE, Woods CA, Hong B, Kong X, Thelen JJ, Ladics GS. Environmental effects on allergen levels in commercially grown non-genetically modified soybeans: assessing variation across north america. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2012; 3:196. [PMID: 22969785 PMCID: PMC3427918 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2012.00196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2012] [Accepted: 08/08/2012] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Soybean (Glycinemax) is a hugely valuable soft commodity that generates tens of billions of dollars annually. This value is due in part to the balanced composition of the seed which is roughly 1:2:2 oil, starch, and protein by weight. In turn, the seeds have many uses with various derivatives appearing broadly in processed food products. As is true with many edible seeds, soybeans contain proteins that are anti-nutritional factors and allergens. Soybean, along with milk, eggs, fish, crustacean shellfish, tree nuts, peanuts, and wheat, elicit a majority of food allergy reactions in the United States. Soybean seed composition can be affected by breeding, and environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, moisture, insect/pathogen load, and/or soil nutrient levels). The objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of genotype and environment on allergen and anti-nutritional proteins in soybean. To address genetic and environmental effects, four varieties of non-GM soybeans were grown in six geographically distinct regions of North America (Georgia, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, Ontario, and Pennsylvania). Absolute quantification of proteins by mass spectrometry can be achieved with a technique called multiple reaction monitoring (MRM), during which signals from an endogenous protein are compared to those from a synthetic heavy-labeled internal standard. Using MRM, eight allergens were absolutely quantified for each variety in each environment. Statistical analyses show that for most allergens, the effects of environment far outweigh the differences between varieties brought about by breeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Severin E. Stevenson
- Interdisciplinary Plant Group, Department of Biochemistry, Christopher S. Bond Life Science Center, University of MissouriColumbia, MO, USA
| | - Carlotta A. Woods
- Interdisciplinary Plant Group, Department of Biochemistry, Christopher S. Bond Life Science Center, University of MissouriColumbia, MO, USA
| | - Bonnie Hong
- Pioneer Hi-Bred InternationalAnkeny, IA, USA
| | | | - Jay J. Thelen
- Interdisciplinary Plant Group, Department of Biochemistry, Christopher S. Bond Life Science Center, University of MissouriColumbia, MO, USA
| | - Gregory S. Ladics
- DuPont Agricultural Biotechnology, Pioneer Hi-BredWilmington, DE, USA
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Van Eenennaam AL, Muir WM. Transgenic salmon: a final leap to the grocery shelf? Nat Biotechnol 2011; 29:706-10. [PMID: 21822244 DOI: 10.1038/nbt.1938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Green BJ, Cummings KJ, Rittenour WR, Hettick JM, Bledsoe TA, Blachere FM, Siegel PD, Gaughan DM, Kullman GJ, Kreiss K, Cox-Ganser J, Beezhold DH. Occupational sensitization to soy allergens in workers at a processing facility. Clin Exp Allergy 2011; 41:1022-30. [PMID: 21545549 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2011.03756.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Exposure to soy antigens has been associated with asthma in community outbreaks and in some workplaces. Recently, 135 soy flake processing workers (SPWs) in a Tennessee facility were evaluated for immune reactivity to soy. Allergic sensitization to soy was common and was five times more prevalent than in health care worker controls (HCWs) with no known soy exposure. OBJECTIVE To characterize sensitization to soy allergens in SPWs. METHODS Sera that were positive to soy ImmunoCAP (n=27) were tested in IgE immunoblots. Wild-type (WT) and transgenic (TG) antigens were sequenced using nanoscale Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry (nanoUPLC MS/MS). IgE reactivity towards 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (CP4-EPSP), a protein found in TG soy, was additionally investigated. De-identified sera from 50 HCWs were used as a control. RESULTS Immunoblotting of WT and TG soy flake extracts revealed IgE against multiple soy antigens with reactivity towards 48, 54, and 62 kDa bands being the most common. The prominent proteins that bound SPW IgE were identified by nanoUPLC MS/MS analysis to be the high molecular weight soybean storage proteins, β-conglycinin (Gly m 5), and Glycinin (Gly m 6). No specific IgE reactivity could be detected to lower molecular weight soy allergens, Gly m 1 and Gly m 2, in soybean hull (SH) extracts. IgE reactivity was comparable between WT and TG extracts; however, IgE antibodies to CP4-EPSP could not be detected. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE SPWs with specific IgE to soy reacted most commonly with higher molecular weight soybean storage proteins compared with the lower molecular weight SH allergens identified in community asthma studies. IgE reactivity was comparable between WT and TG soy extracts, while no IgE reactivity to CP4-EPSP was observed. High molecular weight soybean storage allergens, Gly m 5 and Gly m 6, may be respiratory sensitizers in occupational exposed SPWs.
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Affiliation(s)
- B J Green
- Allergy and Clinical Immunology Branch, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morgantown, WV 26505-2888,
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Nakamura R, Satoh R, Nakamura R, Shimazaki T, Kasuga M, Yamaguchi-Shinozaki K, Kikuchi A, Watanabe KN, Teshima R. Immunoproteomic and two-dimensional difference gel electrophoresis analysis of Arabidopsis dehydration response element-binding protein 1A (DREB1A)-transgenic potato. Biol Pharm Bull 2010; 33:1418-25. [PMID: 20686241 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.33.1418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
To produce crops that are more tolerant to stresses such as heat, cold, and salt, transgenic plants have been produced those express stress-associated proteins. In this study, we used immunoproteomic and two-dimensional difference gel electrophoresis (2D-DIGE) methods to investigate the allergenicity of transgenic potatoes expressing Arabidopsis DREB1A (dehydration responsive element-binding protein 1A), driven by the rd29A promoter or the 35S promoter. Immunoproteomic analysis using sera from potato-allergic patients revealed several immunoglobulin E (IgE)-binding protein spots. The patterns of protein binding were almost the same between transgenic and non-transgenic potatoes. The IgE-binding proteins in potato were identified as patatin precursors, a segment of serine protease inhibitor 2, and proteinase inhibitor II by matrix assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight (MALDI-TOF) MS/MS. 2D-DIGE analysis revealed several differences in protein expression between non-transgenic potato and transgenic potato; those showing increased expression in transgenic potatoes were identified as precursors of patatin, a major potato allergen, and those showing decreased expression in transgenic potatoes were identified as lipoxygenase and glycogen (starch) synthase. These results suggested that transgenic potatoes may express slightly higher levels of allergens, but their IgE-binding patterns were almost the same as those of control potatoes. Further research on changes in protein expressions in response to environmental factors is required to confirm whether the differences observed in this study are due to gene transfection, rather than environmental factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rika Nakamura
- Division of Novel Foods and Immunochemistry, National Institute of Health Sciences, Tokyo, Japan
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16
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Scientific Opinion on applications (EFSA‐GMO‐RX‐40‐3‐2[8‐1a/20‐1a], EFSA‐GMO‐RX‐40‐3‐2) for renewal of authorisation for the continued marketing of (1) food containing, consisting of, or produced from genetically modified soybean 40‐3‐2; (2) feed containing, consisting of, or produced from soybean 40‐3‐2; (3) other products containing or consisting of soybean 40‐3‐2 with the exception of cultivation, all under Regulation (EC) No 1829/2003 from Monsanto. EFSA J 2010. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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17
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Allergenicity study of EGFP-transgenic chicken meat by serological and 2D-DIGE analysis. Food Chem Toxicol 2010; 48:1302-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2010.02.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2009] [Revised: 02/14/2010] [Accepted: 02/18/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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18
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Dearman RJ, Kimber I. Animal models of protein allergenicity: potential benefits, pitfalls and challenges. Clin Exp Allergy 2009; 39:458-68. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2008.03194.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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19
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Batista R, Oliveira MM. Facts and fiction of genetically engineered food. Trends Biotechnol 2009; 27:277-86. [PMID: 19324440 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2009.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2008] [Revised: 01/23/2009] [Accepted: 01/30/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The generation of genetically engineered (GE) foods has been raising several concerns and controversies that divide not only the general public but also the scientific community. The fear and importance of the new technology, as well as commercial interests, have supported many of the ongoing discussions. The recent increase in the number of GE foods approved for import into the European Union and the increasingly global commercial food trades justify revisiting the facts and fiction surrounding this technology with the aim of increasing public awareness for well-informed decisions. Techniques that have recently become available for assessing food quality and its impact on human health, as well as the wealth of scientific data previously generated, clearly support the safety of commercialized GE products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Batista
- National Institute of Health, Av. Padre Cruz, 1649-016 Lisboa, Portugal.
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20
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Analytical criteria for performance characteristics of IgE binding methods for evaluating safety of biotech food products. Food Chem Toxicol 2008; 46 Suppl 10:S15-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2008.07.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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21
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Should genetically modified foods be abandoned on the basis of allergenicity? Anal Bioanal Chem 2008; 392:341-6. [PMID: 18488210 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-008-2123-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2008] [Accepted: 04/08/2008] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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22
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Safety and Nutritional Assessment of GM Plants and derived food and feed: The role of animal feeding trials. EFSA J 2008. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2008.1057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
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23
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Safety and nutritional assessment of GM plants and derived food and feed: the role of animal feeding trials. Food Chem Toxicol 2008; 46 Suppl 1:S2-70. [PMID: 18328408 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2008.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
In this report the various elements of the safety and nutritional assessment procedure for genetically modified (GM) plant derived food and feed are discussed, in particular the potential and limitations of animal feeding trials for the safety and nutritional testing of whole GM food and feed. The general principles for the risk assessment of GM plants and derived food and feed are followed, as described in the EFSA guidance document of the EFSA Scientific Panel on Genetically Modified Organisms. In Section 1 the mandate, scope and general principles for risk assessment of GM plant derived food and feed are discussed. Products under consideration are food and feed derived from GM plants, such as maize, soybeans, oilseed rape and cotton, modified through the introduction of one or more genes coding for agronomic input traits like herbicide tolerance and/or insect resistance. Furthermore GM plant derived food and feed, which have been obtained through extensive genetic modifications targeted at specific alterations of metabolic pathways leading to improved nutritional and/or health characteristics, such as rice containing beta-carotene, soybeans with enhanced oleic acid content, or tomato with increased concentration of flavonoids, are considered. The safety assessment of GM plants and derived food and feed follows a comparative approach, i.e. the food and feed are compared with their non-GM counterparts in order to identify intended and unintended (unexpected) differences which subsequently are assessed with respect to their potential impact on the environment, safety for humans and animals, and nutritional quality. Key elements of the assessment procedure are the molecular, compositional, phenotypic and agronomic analysis in order to identify similarities and differences between the GM plant and its near isogenic counterpart. The safety assessment is focussed on (i) the presence and characteristics of newly expressed proteins and other new constituents and possible changes in the level of natural constituents beyond normal variation, and on the characteristics of the GM food and feed, and (ii) the possible occurrence of unintended (unexpected) effects in GM plants due to genetic modification. In order to identify these effects a comparative phenotypic and molecular analysis of the GM plant and its near isogenic counterpart is carried out, in parallel with a targeted analysis of single specific compounds, which represent important metabolic pathways in the plant like macro and micro nutrients, known anti-nutrients and toxins. Significant differences may be indicative of the occurrence of unintended effects, which require further investigation. Section 2 provides an overview of studies performed for the safety and nutritional assessment of whole food and feed. Extensive experience has been built up in recent decades from the safety and nutritional testing in animals of irradiated foods, novel foods and fruit and vegetables. These approaches are also relevant for the safety and nutritional testing of whole GM food and feed. Many feeding trials have been reported in which GM foods like maize, potatoes, rice, soybeans and tomatoes have been fed to rats or mice for prolonged periods, and parameters such as body weight, feed consumption, blood chemistry, organ weights, histopathology etc have been measured. The food and feed under investigation were derived from GM plants with improved agronomic characteristics like herbicide tolerance and/or insect resistance. The majority of these experiments did not indicate clinical effects or histopathological abnormalities in organs or tissues of exposed animals. In some cases adverse effects were noted, which were difficult to interpret due to shortcomings in the studies. Many studies have also been carried out with feed derived from GM plants with agronomic input traits in target animal species to assess the nutritive value of the feed and their performance potential. Studies in sheep, pigs, broilers, lactating dairy cows, and fish, comparing the in vivo bioavailability of nutrients from a range of GM plants with their near isogenic counterpart and commercial varieties, showed that they were comparable with those for near isogenic non-GM lines and commercial varieties. In Section 3 toxicological in vivo, in silico, and in vitro test methods are discussed which may be applied for the safety and nutritional assessment of specific compounds present in food and feed or of whole food and feed derived from GM plants. Moreover the purpose, potential and limitations of the 90-day rodent feeding trial for the safety and nutritional testing of whole food and feed have been examined. Methods for single and repeated dose toxicity testing, reproductive and developmental toxicity testing and immunotoxicity testing, as described in OECD guideline tests for single well-defined chemicals are discussed and considered to be adequate for the safety testing of single substances including new products in GM food and feed. Various in silico and in vitro methods may contribute to the safety assessment of GM plant derived food and feed and components thereof, like (i) in silico searches for sequence homology and/or structural similarity of novel proteins or their degradation products to known toxic or allergenic proteins, (ii) simulated gastric and intestinal fluids in order to study the digestive stability of newly expressed proteins and in vitro systems for analysis of the stability of the novel protein under heat or other processing conditions, and (iii) in vitro genotoxicity test methods that screen for point mutations, chromosomal aberrations and DNA damage/repair. The current performance of the safety assessment of whole foods is mainly based on the protocols for low-molecular-weight chemicals such as pharmaceuticals, industrial chemicals, pesticides, food additives and contaminants. However without adaptation, these protocols have limitations for testing of whole food and feed. This primarily results from the fact that defined single substances can be dosed to laboratory animals at very large multiples of the expected human exposure, thus giving a large margin of safety. In contrast foodstuffs are bulky, lead to satiation and can only be included in the diet at much lower multiples of expected human intakes. When testing whole foods, the possible highest concentration of the GM food and feed in the laboratory animal diet may be limited because of nutritional imbalance of the diet, or by the presence of compounds with a known toxicological profile. The aim of the 90-days rodent feeding study with the whole GM food and feed is to assess potential unintended effects of toxicological and/or nutritional relevance and to establish whether the GM food and feed is as safe and nutritious as its traditional comparator rather than determining qualitative and quantitative intrinsic toxicity of defined food constituents. The design of the study should be adapted from the OECD 90-day rodent toxicity study. The precise study design has to take into account the nature of the food and feed and the characteristics of the new trait(s) and their intended role in the GM food and feed. A 90-day animal feeding trial has a large capacity (sensitivity and specificity) to detect potential toxicological effects of single well defined compounds. This can be concluded from data reported on the toxicology of a wide range of industrial chemicals, pharmaceuticals, food substances, environmental, and agricultural chemicals. It is possible to model the sensitivity of the rat subchronic feeding study for the detection of hypothetically increased amount of compounds such as anti-nutrients, toxicants or secondary metabolites. With respect to the detection of potential unintended effects in whole GM food and feed, it is unlikely that substances present in small amounts and with a low toxic potential will result in any observable (unintended) effects in a 90-day rodent feeding study, as they would be below the no-observed-effect-level and thus of unlikely impact to human health at normal intake levels. Laboratory animal feeding studies of 90-days duration appear to be sufficient to pick up adverse effects of diverse compounds that would also give adverse effects after chronic exposure. This conclusion is based on literature data from studies investigating whether toxicological effects are adequately identified in 3-month subchronic studies in rodents, by comparing findings at 3 and 24 months for a range of different chemicals. The 90-day rodent feeding study is not designed to detect effects on reproduction or development other than effects on adult reproductive organ weights and histopathology. Analyses of available data indicate that, for a wide range of substances, reproductive and developmental effects are not potentially more sensitive endpoints than those examined in subchronic toxicity tests. Should there be structural alerts for reproductive/developmental effects or other indications from data available on a GM food and feed, then these tests should be considered. By relating the estimated daily intake, or theoretical maximum daily intake per capita for a given whole food (or the sum of its individual commercial constituents) to that consumed on average per rat per day in the subchronic 90-day feeding study, it is possible to establish the margin of exposure (safety margin) for consumers. Results obtained from testing GM food and feed in rodents indicate that large (at least 100-fold) 'safety' margins exist between animal exposure levels without observed adverse effects and estimated human daily intake. Results of feeding studies with feed derived from GM plants with improved agronomic properties, carried out in a wide range of livestock species, are discussed. The studies did not show any biologically relevant differences in the parameters tested between control and test animals. (ABSTRACT TRUNCATED)
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Goodman RE, Vieths S, Sampson HA, Hill D, Ebisawa M, Taylor SL, van Ree R. Allergenicity assessment of genetically modified crops—what makes sense? Nat Biotechnol 2008; 26:73-81. [DOI: 10.1038/nbt1343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Ramessar K, Peremarti A, Gómez-Galera S, Naqvi S, Moralejo M, Muñoz P, Capell T, Christou P. Biosafety and risk assessment framework for selectable marker genes in transgenic crop plants: a case of the science not supporting the politics. Transgenic Res 2007; 16:261-80. [PMID: 17436060 DOI: 10.1007/s11248-007-9083-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2006] [Accepted: 02/05/2007] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Selectable marker gene systems are vital for the development of transgenic crops. Since the creation of the first transgenic plants in the early 1980s and their subsequent commercialization worldwide over almost an entire decade, antibiotic and herbicide resistance selectable marker gene systems have been an integral feature of plant genetic modification. Without them, creating transgenic crops is not feasible on purely economic and practical terms. These systems allow the relatively straightforward identification and selection of plants that have stably incorporated not only the marker genes but also genes of interest, for example herbicide tolerance and pest resistance. Bacterial antibiotic resistance genes are also crucial in molecular biology manipulations in the laboratory. An unprecedented debate has accompanied the development and commercialization of transgenic crops. Divergent policies and their implementation in the European Union on one hand and the rest of the world on the other (industrialized and developing countries alike), have resulted in disputes with serious consequences on agricultural policy, world trade and food security. A lot of research effort has been directed towards the development of marker-free transformation or systems to remove selectable markers. Such research has been in a large part motivated by perceived problems with antibiotic resistance selectable markers; however, it is not justified from a safety point of view. The aim of this review is to discuss in some detail the currently available scientific evidence that overwhelmingly argues for the safety of these marker gene systems. Our conclusion, supported by numerous studies, most of which are commissioned by some of the very parties that have taken a position against the use of antibiotic selectable marker gene systems, is that there is no scientific basis to argue against the use and presence of selectable marker genes as a class in transgenic plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koreen Ramessar
- Departament de Produccio Vegetal i Ciencia Forestal, Universitat de Lleida, Av. Alcalde Rovira Roure, 191, Lleida 25198, Spain
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26
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Reis LFL, Van Sluys MA, Garratt RC, Pereira HM, Teixeira MM. GMOs: building the future on the basis of past experience. AN ACAD BRAS CIENC 2006; 78:667-86. [PMID: 17143405 DOI: 10.1590/s0001-37652006000400005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2006] [Accepted: 10/24/2006] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Biosafety of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and their derivatives is still a major topic in the agenda of government and societies worldwide. The aim of this review is to bring into light that data that supported the decision taken back in 1998 as an exercise to stimulate criticism from the scientific community for upcoming discussions and to avoid emotional and senseless arguments that could jeopardize future development in the field. It must be emphasized that Roundup Ready soybean is just one example of how biotechnology can bring in significant advances for society, not only through increased productivity, but also with beneficial environmental impact, thereby allowing more rational use of agricultural pesticides for improvement of the soil conditions. The adoption of agricultural practices with higher yield will also allow better distribution of income among small farmers. New species of genetically modified plants will soon be available and society should be capable of making decisions in an objective and well-informed manner, through collegiate bodies that are qualified in all aspects of biosafety and environmental impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luiz F L Reis
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
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27
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Cerdeira AL, Duke SO. The current status and environmental impacts of glyphosate-resistant crops: a review. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY 2006; 35:1633-58. [PMID: 16899736 DOI: 10.2134/jeq2005.0378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2005] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl) glycine]-resistant crops (GRCs), canola (Brassica napus L.), cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), maize (Zea mays L.), and soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] have been commercialized and grown extensively in the Western Hemisphere and, to a lesser extent, elsewhere. Glyphosate-resistant cotton and soybean have become dominant in those countries where their planting is permitted. Effects of glyphosate on contamination of soil, water, and air are minimal, compared to some of the herbicides that they replace. No risks have been found with food or feed safety or nutritional value in products from currently available GRCs. Glyphosate-resistant crops have promoted the adoption of reduced- or no-tillage agriculture in the USA and Argentina, providing a substantial environmental benefit. Weed species in GRC fields have shifted to those that can more successfully withstand glyphosate and to those that avoid the time of its application. Three weed species have evolved resistance to glyphosate in GRCs. Glyphosate-resistant crops have greater potential to become problems as volunteer crops than do conventional crops. Glyphosate resistance transgenes have been found in fields of canola that are supposed to be non-transgenic. Under some circumstances, the largest risk of GRCs may be transgene flow (introgression) from GRCs to related species that might become problems in natural ecosystems. Glyphosate resistance transgenes themselves are highly unlikely to be a risk in wild plant populations, but when linked to transgenes that may impart fitness benefits outside of agriculture (e.g., insect resistance), natural ecosystems could be affected. The development and use of failsafe introgression barriers in crops with such linked genes is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio L Cerdeira
- Brazilian Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Embrapa/Environment, C.P. 69, Jaguariuna-SP-13820-000, Brazil
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28
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Spök A, Gaugitsch H, Laffer S, Pauli G, Saito H, Sampson H, Sibanda E, Thomas W, van Hage M, Valenta R. Suggestions for the Assessment of the Allergenic Potential of Genetically Modified Organisms. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2005; 137:167-80. [PMID: 15947472 DOI: 10.1159/000086315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2005] [Accepted: 04/11/2005] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The prevalence of allergic diseases has been increasing continuously and, accordingly, there is a great desire to evaluate the allergenic potential of components in our daily environment (e.g., food). Although there is almost no scientific evidence that genetically modified organisms (GMOs) exhibit increased allergenicity compared with the corresponding wild type significant concerns have been raised regarding this matter. In principle, it is possible that the allergenic potential of GMOs may be increased due to the introduction of potential foreign allergens, to potentially upregulated expression of allergenic components caused by the modification of the wild type organism or to different means of exposure. According to the current practice, the proteins to be introduced into a GMO are evaluated for their physiochemical properties, sequence homology with known allergens and occasionally regarding their allergenic activity. We discuss why these current rules and procedures cannot predict or exclude the allergenicity of a given GMO with certainty. As an alternative we suggest to improve the current evaluation by an experimental comparison of the wild-type organism with the whole GMO regarding their potential to elicit reactions in allergic individuals and to induce de novo sensitizations. We also recommend that the suggested assessment procedures be equally applied to GMOs as well as to natural cultivars in order to establish effective measures for allergy prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armin Spök
- Inter-University Research Centre for Technology, Work, and Culture, Graz, Austria
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Goodman RE, Hefle SL, Taylor SL, van Ree R. Assessing Genetically Modified Crops to Minimize the Risk of Increased Food Allergy: A Review. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2005; 137:153-66. [PMID: 15947471 DOI: 10.1159/000086314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The first genetically modified (GM) crops approved for food use (tomato and soybean) were evaluated for safety by the United States Food and Drug Administration prior to commercial production. Among other factors, those products and all additional GM crops that have been grown commercially have been evaluated for potential increases in allergenic properties using methods that are consistent with the current understanding of food allergens and knowledge regarding the prediction of allergenic activity. Although there have been refinements, the key aspects of the evaluation have not changed. The allergenic properties of the gene donor and the host (recipient) organisms are considered in determining the appropriate testing strategy. The amino acid sequence of the encoded protein is compared to all known allergens to determine whether the protein is a known allergen or is sufficiently similar to any known allergen to indicate an increased probability of allergic cross-reactivity. Stability of the protein in the presence of acid with the stomach protease pepsin is tested as a risk factor for food allergenicity. In vitro or in vivo human IgE binding are tested when appropriate, if the gene donor is an allergen or the sequence of the protein is similar to an allergen. Serum donors and skin test subjects are selected based on their proven allergic responses to the gene donor or to material containing the allergen that was matched in sequence. While some scientists and regulators have suggested using animal models, performing broadly targeted serum IgE testing or extensive pre- or post-market clinical tests, current evidence does not support these tests as being predictive or practical. Based on the evidence to date, the current assessment process has worked well to prevent the unintended introduction of allergens in commercial GM crops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard E Goodman
- Food Allergy Research and Resource Program, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583-0955, USA.
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Poulsen LK. Allergy assessment of foods or ingredients derived from biotechnology, gene-modified organisms, or novel foods. Mol Nutr Food Res 2005; 48:413-23. [PMID: 15508176 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.200400029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 193] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The introduction of novel proteins into foods carries a risk of eliciting allergic reactions in individuals sensitive to the introduced protein and a risk of sensitizing susceptible individuals. No single predictive test exists to perform a hazard assessment in relation to allergenic properties of newly expressed proteins in gene-modified organisms (GMOs). Instead, performance of a weighted risk analysis based on the decision tree approach has been suggested. The individual steps of this analysis comprise sequence homology to known allergens, specific or targeted serum screens for immunoglobulin E (IgE) cross-reactions to known allergens, digestability studies of the proteins in simulated gastric and/or intestinal fluids, and animal studies. These steps are discussed and five examples of risk evaluation of GMOs or novel foods are presented. These include ice-structuring protein derived from fish, microbial transglutaminase, GMO-soybeans, amylase and the Nangai nut.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars K Poulsen
- Laboratory of Medical Allergology, Allergy Clinic, National University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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