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Wu Y, Liu Y, Liu P, Sun L, Song P, Peng J, Li R, Wei N, Wu L, Wang T, Zhang L, Yang N, Mao H. Evaluating vehicular exhaust and evaporative emissions via VOC measurement in an underground parking garage. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2023; 333:122022. [PMID: 37315887 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.122022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2023] [Revised: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Vehicular emissions, including both tailpipe exhaust and evaporative emissions, are major anthropogenic sources of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in urban cities. Current knowledge on vehicle tailpipe and evaporative emissions was mainly obtained via laboratory tests on very few vehicles under experimental conditions. Information on fleet gasoline vehicles emission features under real-world conditions is lacking. Here, VOC measurement was conducted in a large residential underground parking garage in Tianjin, China, to reveal the feature of the exhaust and evaporative emissions from real-world gasoline vehicle fleets. The VOC concentration in the parking garage was on average 362.7 ± 87.7 μg m-3, significantly higher than that in the ambient atmosphere at the same period (63.2 μg m-3). Aromatics and alkanes were the mainly contributors on both weekdays and weekends. A positive correlation between VOCs and traffic flow was observed, especially in the daytime. Source apportionment through the positive matrix factorization model (PMF) revealed that the tailpipe and evaporative emissions accounted for 43.2% and 33.7% of VOCs, respectively. Evaporative emission contributed 69.3% to the VOCs at night due to diurnal breathing loss from numerous parked cars. In contrast, tailpipe emission was most remarkable during morning rush hours. Based on the PMF results, we reconstructed a vehicle-related VOCs profile representing the combination of the tailpipe exhaust and evaporative emission from fleet-average gasoline vehicles, which could benefit future source apportionment studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yajun Wu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Urban Transport Emission Research & State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Urban Ambient Air Particulate Matter Pollution Prevention and Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Yan Liu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Urban Transport Emission Research & State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Urban Ambient Air Particulate Matter Pollution Prevention and Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Peiji Liu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Urban Transport Emission Research & State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Urban Ambient Air Particulate Matter Pollution Prevention and Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Luna Sun
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Urban Transport Emission Research & State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Urban Ambient Air Particulate Matter Pollution Prevention and Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Pengfei Song
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Urban Transport Emission Research & State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Urban Ambient Air Particulate Matter Pollution Prevention and Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Jianfei Peng
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Urban Transport Emission Research & State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Urban Ambient Air Particulate Matter Pollution Prevention and Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China.
| | - Ruikang Li
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Urban Transport Emission Research & State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Urban Ambient Air Particulate Matter Pollution Prevention and Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Ning Wei
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Urban Transport Emission Research & State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Urban Ambient Air Particulate Matter Pollution Prevention and Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Lin Wu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Urban Transport Emission Research & State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Urban Ambient Air Particulate Matter Pollution Prevention and Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Ting Wang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Urban Transport Emission Research & State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Urban Ambient Air Particulate Matter Pollution Prevention and Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Lina Zhang
- Tianjin Academy of Eco-Environmental Sciences, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Ning Yang
- Tianjin Eco-Environmental Monitoring Center, Tianjin, 300192, China
| | - Hongjun Mao
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Urban Transport Emission Research & State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Urban Ambient Air Particulate Matter Pollution Prevention and Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
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Analysis of Unregulated VOCs Downstream a Three-Way Catalyst in a Simulated Gasoline Engine Exhaust under Non-Optimum Conditions. Catalysts 2023. [DOI: 10.3390/catal13030563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Urban air pollution is partly due to exhaust emissions from road transport. Vehicle emissions have been regulated for more than 30 years in many countries around the world. Each motor type is equipped with a specific emission control system. In gasoline vehicles, a three-way catalytic converter (TWC) is implemented to remove at the same time hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), and nitrogen oxides (NOx). However, TWCs are only efficient above 200 °C and at a stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio in the exhaust. However, deviations from stoichiometry occur during fast accelerations and decelerations. This study reports the analysis of unregulated VOCs commercial mini-TWC fed by model gasoline gas mixtures. A synthetic gas bench was used to control the model exhaust containing two model hydrocarbons (propene and propane) to identify the conditions at which VOCs are created under non-optimal conditions. Most of the pollutants such as N2O and VOCs were emitted between 220 and 500 °C with a peak at around 280 °C, temperature which corresponds to the tipping point of the TWC activity. The combination of different mass spectrometric analysis (online and offline) allowed to identify many different VOCs: carbonated (acetone, acetaldehyde, acroleine), nitrile (acetonitrile, propanenitrile, acrylonitrile, cyanopropene) and aromatic (benzene, toluene) compounds. Growth mechanisms from propene and to a lesser extend propane are responsible for the formation of these higher aromatic compounds that could lead to the formation of secondary organic aerosol in a near-field area.
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Gonzalez A, Boies A, Swanson J, Kittelson D. Measuring the Air Quality Using Low-Cost Air Sensors in a Parking Garage at University of Minnesota, USA. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:15223. [PMID: 36429940 PMCID: PMC9690026 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192215223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Revised: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The concentration of air pollutants in underground parking garages has been found to be higher compared to ambient air. Vehicle emissions from cold starts are the main sources of air pollution in underground parking garages. Eight days of measurements, using low-cost air sensors, were conducted at one underground parking garage at the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. The CO, NO, NO2, and PM2.5 daily average concentrations in the parking garage were measured to be higher, by up to more than an order of magnitude, compared to the ambient concentration. There is positive correlation between exit traffic flow and the air concentrations in the parking garage for lung deposited surface area (LDSA), CO2, NO, and CO. Fuel specific emission factors were calculated for CO, NO, and NOx. Ranging from 25 to 28 g/kgfuel for CO, from 1.3 to 1.7 g/kgfuel for NO, and from 2.1 to 2.7 g/kgfuel for NOx. Regulated emissions were also calculated for CO and NOx with values of 2.4 to 2.9 and 0.19 to 0.25 g/mile, respectively. These emissions are about 50% higher than the 2017 U.S. emission standards for CO and nearly an order magnitude higher for NOx.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andres Gonzalez
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Geo-Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Adam Boies
- Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1PZ, UK
| | - Jacob Swanson
- Department of Integrated Engineering, Minnesota State University, Mankato, MN 56001, USA
| | - David Kittelson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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Ataei SM, Aghayan I, Pouresmaeili MA, Babaie M, Hadadi F. The emission factor adjustments of the passenger cars in multi-story car parks under drive modes. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:5105-5123. [PMID: 34417689 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-15960-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The drive mode is an important factor that affects the adjustment requirements for emission factors of the conventional simulation methods in multi-story car parks. In order to propose comprehensive emission factor adjustments for passenger cars based on the drive modes, the present study is aimed to investigate the effects of different drive modes on emission factors for multi-story car parks. Thus, to achieve this aim, the tailpipe emissions based on the on-board measurement and international vehicle emission (IVE) model are obtained. The results indicate that the drive modes significantly affect the emissions. Accordingly, the change in drive mode from minimum to maximum leads to an increase in the vehicle-specific power (VSP) by 106%. Furthermore, the results of emission factors show the discrepancy between on-board measurement and IVE model with the maximum and minimum adjustment factors by 3.28 and 1.28 for carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2), respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seyed Milad Ataei
- Faculty of Civil Engineering, Shahrood University of Technology, Shahrood, Iran
| | - Iman Aghayan
- Faculty of Civil Engineering, Shahrood University of Technology, Shahrood, Iran.
| | | | - Meisam Babaie
- School of Science, Engineering and Environment, University of Salford, Manchester, UK
| | - Farhad Hadadi
- Faculty of Civil Engineering, Shahrood University of Technology, Shahrood, Iran
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Liu Z, Yin H, Ma S, Jin G, Gao J, Ding W. On-site assessments on variations of PM 2.5, PM 10, CO 2 and TVOC concentrations in naturally ventilated underground parking garages with traffic volume. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2019; 247:626-637. [PMID: 30711818 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.01.095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Revised: 01/14/2019] [Accepted: 01/23/2019] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
There have been an increasing number of automobile vehicles in cities, so that newly developed residential areas are mostly designed with underground parking garages (UPGs). For naturally ventilated UPGs, the ventilation performance may be insufficient to discharge totally vehicle-induced pollutants out of the enclosed underground spaces, which consequently results in threats to residents' health. This study, therefore, aims at examining the patterns of pollutant concentrations in naturally ventilation UPGs as well as their sensitivities to traffic volume. In particular, the naturally ventilated UPGs' weekday particulate matters (PM2.5 and PM10), CO2 and TVOC concentration as well as their relationships between traffic volume were quantitively evaluated based on field measurements in eight residential areas in Baoding, China. Results indicated that daily average PM2.5, PM10, CO2 and TVOC concentrations in studied UPGs were 105.81 μg/m3, 464.17 μg/m3, 571 ppm and 24 ppb, respectively. The PM2.5 concentrations in UPGs were slightly higher than that in ambient environments, while the PM10 concentrations in UPGs were significantly higher. Furthermore, both PM10 and TVOC concentrations in UPGs were in significant relationships with traffic volume at the p < 0.01 level, while the concentration of UPG PM2.5 generally exhibited a significant correlation (p < 0.01) with that of the ambient. Nevertheless, a combination of traffic volume, the ambient and accumulative effect was much better to explain the hourly PM10 concentration in UPGs. These findings will be conducive to instruct engineers with fundamental knowledge of UPG ventilation design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhijian Liu
- Department of Power Engineering, North China Electric Power University, Baoding, Hebei, 071003, PR China.
| | - Hang Yin
- Department of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kgs, Denmark
| | - Shengyuan Ma
- Department of Power Engineering, North China Electric Power University, Baoding, Hebei, 071003, PR China
| | - Gaungya Jin
- Department of Power Engineering, North China Electric Power University, Baoding, Hebei, 071003, PR China
| | - Jun Gao
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, PR China.
| | - Wenjun Ding
- Laboratory of Environment and Health, College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No.19A Yuquan Road, Beijing, 100049, China
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Hrachowina L, Domènech-Gil G, Pardo A, Seifner MS, Gràcia I, Cané C, Romano-Rodríguez A, Barth S. Site-Specific Growth and in Situ Integration of Different Nanowire Material Networks on a Single Chip: Toward a Nanowire-Based Electronic Nose for Gas Detection. ACS Sens 2018; 3:727-734. [PMID: 29485272 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.8b00073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A new method for the site-selective synthesis of nanowires has been developed to enable material growth with defined morphology and, at the same time, different composition on the same chip surface. The chemical vapor deposition approach for the growth of these nanowire-based resistive devices using micromembranes can be easily modified and represents a simple, adjustable fabrication process for the direct integration of nanowire meshes in multifunctional devices. This proof-of-concept study includes the deposition of SnO2, WO3, and Ge nanowires on the same chip. The individual resistors exhibit adequate gas sensing responses toward changing gas concentrations of CO, NO2, and humidity diluted in synthetic air. The data have been processed by principal component analysis with cluster responses that can be easily separated, and thus, the devices described herein are in principle suitable for environmental monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Isabel Gràcia
- Institut de Microelectrònica de Barcelona, Centre Nacional de Microelectrònica, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Carles Cané
- Institut de Microelectrònica de Barcelona, Centre Nacional de Microelectrònica, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | | | - Sven Barth
- Institute of Materials Chemistry, TU Wien, 1060 Vienna, Austria
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Marć M, Śmiełowska M, Namieśnik J, Zabiegała B. Indoor air quality of everyday use spaces dedicated to specific purposes-a review. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2018; 25:2065-2082. [PMID: 29192399 PMCID: PMC5773644 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-017-0839-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2017] [Accepted: 11/23/2017] [Indexed: 04/16/2023]
Abstract
According to literature data, some of the main factors which significantly affect the quality of the indoor environment in residential households or apartments are human activities such as cooking, smoking, cleaning, and indoor exercising. The paper presents a literature overview related to air quality in everyday use spaces dedicated to specific purposes which are integral parts of residential buildings, such as kitchens, basements, and individual garages. Some aspects of air quality in large-scale car parks, as a specific type of indoor environment, are also discussed. All those areas are characterized by relatively short time use. On the other hand, high and very high concentration levels of xenobiotics can be observed, resulting in higher exposure risk. The main compounds or group of chemical compounds are presented and discussed. The main factors influencing the type and amount of chemical pollutants present in the air of such areas are indicated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariusz Marć
- Department of Analytical and Ecological Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Opole University, Opole, Poland.
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Narutowicza Str. 11/12, 80-233, Gdańsk, PL, Poland.
| | - Monika Śmiełowska
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Narutowicza Str. 11/12, 80-233, Gdańsk, PL, Poland
| | - Jacek Namieśnik
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Narutowicza Str. 11/12, 80-233, Gdańsk, PL, Poland
| | - Bożena Zabiegała
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Narutowicza Str. 11/12, 80-233, Gdańsk, PL, Poland
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9
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Marć M, Śmiełowska M, Zabiegała B. Concentrations of monoaromatic hydrocarbons in the air of the underground car park and individual garages attached to residential buildings. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 573:767-777. [PMID: 27591527 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.08.173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2016] [Revised: 08/24/2016] [Accepted: 08/25/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The paper describes the characteristics of a two-level underground car park and three individual garages attached to residential buildings, differing by the resident utilization habits, located in North Poland (Tri-City agglomeration area). The strategy of collecting the analyte samples from air in mentioned enclosed areas, concerning the determination of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, o-xylene and p,m-xylenes (BTEX) concentrations was performed using passive sampling technique - Radiello® diffusive passive samplers with graphitised charcoal cartridge as a sorption medium. The stage of liberation and final determination of collected analytes was conducted with the use of thermal desorption-gas chromatography-flame ionisation detector (TD-GC-FID) system. As a result of the performed measurements in two-level underground car park, it was observed that the time-weighted average concentrations of BTEX in air were as follows: Level-1 - benzene - 5.2±1.1μg/m3, toluene - 12.3±2.4μg/m3, ethylbenzene 2.85±0.80μg/m3, o-xylene - 4.6±1.4μg/m3, p, m-xylenes - 8.8±2,4μg/m3; Level-2 - benzene - 5.2±1.1μg/m3, toluene - 12.9±3.6μg/m3, ethylbenzene - 2.73±0.79μg/m3, o-xylene - 4.2±1.1μg/m3, p, m-xylenes - 8.5±2.3μg/m3. As for residential garages, the time-weighted average concentrations of BTEX in air were in the following ranges: from 5.9 to 53μg/m3 (benzene), from 7.1 to 195μg/m3 (toluene), from 3.0 to 39μg/m3 (ethylbenzene), from 5.6 to 44μg/m3 (o-xylene) and from 6.3 to 99μg/m3 (p,m-xylenes). Also, BTEX concentration ratios such as: tol/benz ratio and (m, p)-xyl/et.benz coefficient, were calculated based on the obtained results to assess the "freshness" of air mass and the influence exerted by vehicle movement on the concentration of BTEX in air in studied enclosed areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariusz Marć
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland.
| | - Monika Śmiełowska
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Bożena Zabiegała
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland
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Giles LV, Barn P, Künzli N, Romieu I, Mittleman MA, van Eeden S, Allen R, Carlsten C, Stieb D, Noonan C, Smargiassi A, Kaufman JD, Hajat S, Kosatsky T, Brauer M. From good intentions to proven interventions: effectiveness of actions to reduce the health impacts of air pollution. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2011; 119:29-36. [PMID: 20729178 PMCID: PMC3018496 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.1002246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2010] [Accepted: 08/20/2010] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Associations between air pollution and a multitude of health effects are now well established. Given ubiquitous exposure to some level of air pollution, the attributable health burden can be high, particularly for susceptible populations. OBJECTIVES An international multidisciplinary workshop was convened to discuss evidence of the effectiveness of actions to reduce health impacts of air pollution at both the community and individual level. The overall aim was to summarize current knowledge regarding air pollution exposure and health impacts leading to public health recommendations. DISCUSSION During the workshop, experts reviewed the biological mechanisms of action of air pollution in the initiation and progression of disease, as well as the state of the science regarding community and individual-level interventions. The workshop highlighted strategies to reduce individual baseline risk of conditions associated with increased susceptibility to the effects of air pollution and the need to better understand the role of exposure duration in disease progression, reversal, and adaptation. CONCLUSION We have identified two promising and largely unexplored strategies to address and mitigate air pollution-related health impacts: reducing individual baseline risk of cardiovascular disease and incorporating air pollution-related health impacts into land-use decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa V. Giles
- School of Human Kinetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Prabjit Barn
- British Columbia Centre for Disease Control, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Nino Künzli
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Murray A. Mittleman
- Cardiovascular Epidemiology Research Unit, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Stephan van Eeden
- Division of Respiratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Providence Heart and Lung Institute, St. Paul’s Hospital, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Ryan Allen
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Chris Carlsten
- School of Environmental Health and
- Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Dave Stieb
- Population Studies Division, Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Epidemiology and Community Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Curtis Noonan
- Center for Environmental Health Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana, USA
| | - Audrey Smargiassi
- Département de Santé Environnementale et Santé au Travail, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
- Institut National de Santé Publique du Québec, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Joel D. Kaufman
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Shakoor Hajat
- London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Tom Kosatsky
- British Columbia Centre for Disease Control, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Michael Brauer
- School of Environmental Health and
- Address correspondence to M. Brauer, School of Environmental Health, The University of British Columbia, 3rd Floor, 2206 East Mall, Vancouver, BC Canada, V6T 1Z3. Telephone: (604) 822-9585. Fax: (604) 822-9588. E-mail:
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