1
|
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection and Use of Illicit Substances Promote Secretion of Semen Exosomes that Enhance Monocyte Adhesion and Induce Actin Reorganization and Chemotactic Migration. Cells 2019; 8:cells8091027. [PMID: 31484431 PMCID: PMC6770851 DOI: 10.3390/cells8091027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2019] [Revised: 08/09/2019] [Accepted: 08/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Semen exosomes (SE) from HIV-uninfected (HIV−) individuals potently inhibit HIV infection in vitro. However, morphological changes in target cells in response to SE have not been characterized or have the effect of HIV infection or the use of illicit substances, specifically psychostimulants, on the function of SE been elucidated. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of HIV infection, psychostimulant use, and both together on SE-mediated regulation of monocyte function. SE were isolated from semen of HIV− and HIV-infected (HIV+) antiretroviral therapy (ART)-naive participants who reported either using or not using psychostimulants. The SE samples were thus designated as HIV−Drug−, HIV−Drug+, HIV+Drug−, and HIV+Drug+. U937 monocytes were treated with different SEs and analyzed for changes in transcriptome, morphometrics, actin reorganization, adhesion, and chemotaxis. HIV infection and/or use of psychostimulants had minimal effects on the physical characteristics of SE. However, different SEs had diverse effects on the messenger RNA signature of monocytes and rapidly induced monocyte adhesion and spreading. SE from HIV infected or psychostimulants users but not HIV−Drug− SE, stimulated actin reorganization, leading to the formation of filopodia-like structures and membrane ruffles containing F-actin and vinculin that in some cases were colocalized. All SE stimulated monocyte chemotaxis to HIV secretome and activated the secretion of matrix metalloproteinases, a phenotype exacerbated by HIV infection and psychostimulant use. SE-directed regulation of cellular morphometrics and chemotaxis depended on the donor clinical status because HIV infection and psychostimulant use altered SE function. Although our inclusion criteria specified the use of cocaine, humans are poly-drug and alcohol users and our study participants used psychostimulants, marijuana, opiates, and alcohol. Thus, it is possible that the effects observed in this study may be due to one of these other substances or due to an interaction between different substances.
Collapse
|
2
|
Romanowicz L, Gogiel T, Galewska Z, Bruczko M, Bączyk J, Roszkowska-Jakimiec W, Sobolewski K. Divergent changes in the content and activity of MMP-26 and TIMP-4 in human umbilical cord tissues associated with preeclampsia. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2018; 231:48-53. [PMID: 30321788 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejogrb.2018.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2018] [Revised: 07/06/2018] [Accepted: 10/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Preeclampsia is the most common disorder associated with pregnancy. Our earlier findings revealed a substantial increase in the amount of matrix metalloproteinase-26 (matrilysin 2; MMP-26) in preeclamptic umbilical cord blood. The role of MMP-26 in preeclamptic umbilical cord tissue has not been fully elucidated. Some reports have indicated that the expression of matrilysin 2 and tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase 4 (TIMP-4) is coordinately regulated during progression of various diseases. STUDY DESIGN Therefore, we decided to assess the expression and activity of MMP-26 and TIMP-4 in normal and preeclamptic umbilical cord tissues - umbilical cord arteries (UCA), vein (UCV) and Wharton's jelly (WJ). Tissues obtained from 10 normal (control material) and 10 preeclamptic umbilical cords were assessed using immunoenzymatic assay, Western immunoblotting, reverse transcriptase - polymerase chain reaction and fluorometric determination of the enzyme activity. RESULTS All umbilical cord tissues, both control and preeclamptic, expressed MMP-26 and TIMP-4 in macromolecular complexes. Preeclampsia induced a significant increase in the content and actual activity of MMP-26 in UCV and WJ, as compared to control. The content of TIMP-4 in preeclamptic UCV and WJ was reduced. The content of MMP-26 mRNA was lower in UCA and UCV, whereas higher in WJ in preeclampsia. CONCLUSIONS Divergent changes in MMP-26 mRNA and protein expression suggest a difference in the factors controlling the matrilysin synthesis in healthy and preeclamptic subjects. The decrease in TIMP-4 content in preeclamptic UCV might be the main reason for significantly higher actual activity of MMP-26 in that tissue. Only in preeclamptic Wharton's jelly the changes were compatible in terms of the content and activity of MMP-26 and TIMP-4. It cannot be excluded that similar alterations can be observed for the whole vascular system of newborns delivered by mothers with preeclampsia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lech Romanowicz
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Medical University of Białystok, Białystok, Poland.
| | - Tomasz Gogiel
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Medical University of Białystok, Białystok, Poland
| | - Zofia Galewska
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Medical University of Białystok, Białystok, Poland
| | - Marta Bruczko
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Medical University of Białystok, Białystok, Poland
| | - Justyna Bączyk
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Medical University of Białystok, Białystok, Poland
| | | | - Krzysztof Sobolewski
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Medical University of Białystok, Białystok, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Leppilahti JM, Harjunmaa U, Järnstedt J, Mangani C, Hernández M, Tervahartiala T, Lopez R, Ashorn U, Ashorn P, Gieselmann DR, Sorsa T. Diagnosis of Newly Delivered Mothers for Periodontitis with a Novel Oral-Rinse aMMP-8 Point-of-Care Test in a Rural Malawian Population. Diagnostics (Basel) 2018; 8:diagnostics8030067. [PMID: 30223547 PMCID: PMC6164346 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics8030067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2018] [Revised: 09/07/2018] [Accepted: 09/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
A novel qualitative point-of-care test of activated matrix metalloproteinase-8 (aMMP-8) using noninvasive oral rinse sampling procedures has been developed for the early detection of collagen breakdown indicating periodontal tissue destruction. The main object of this study was to assess the reliability of the test in a low-income setting to identify participants with history of periodontal destruction detected as alveolar bone loss (ABL) in radiographs. This cross-sectional study included 486 women who had recently delivered in rural Malawi. The aMMP-8 test and dental panoramic radiographs were taken within 48 h of delivery. The performance of the test in comparison to radiological examinations was tested by following the standards for reporting of diagnostic accuracy studies protocol (STARD) with respective statistical measures and 95% confidence intervals. From the 486 eligible participants, 461 mothers with complete data, aged from 15 to 46 years (mean 24.8, SD 6.0) were included in the analysis. ABL was identified in 116 of 461 participants. There was 56% agreement between the aMMP-8 test results and detected ABL (yes or no) in radiographs. Calculated sensitivity of the test was 80% (72–87%), specificity 48% (43–54%), positive predictive value 34% (31–37%), negative predictive value 88% (83–91%), positive likelihood ratio 1.55 (1.35–1.77), and negative likelihood ratio 0.41(0.28–0.60). The aMMP-8 test sensitivity and negative predictive value to identify the ABL cases were relatively high, but there was additionally a high rate of test-positive results in participants without ABL, especially in young mothers, leading to low overall agreement between the test results and radiological bone loss. Further longitudinal studies are needed to examine if the test positive subjects are in risk of future bone loss before the detectable signs of periodontitis in radiographs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jussi M Leppilahti
- Department of Periodontology and Geriatric Dentistry, University of Oulu, Oulu 90014, Finland.
| | - Ulla Harjunmaa
- Center for Child Health Research, University of Tampere, Tampere 33014, Finland.
| | - Jorma Järnstedt
- Center for Child Health Research, University of Tampere, Tampere 33014, Finland.
| | - Charles Mangani
- College of Medicine, University of Malawi, Private Bag 360, Chichiri, Blantyre, Malawi.
| | - Marcela Hernández
- Laboratory of Periodontal Biology and Department of Pathology and Oral Medicine, Faculty of Dentistry, Universidad de Chile, Av. Sergio Livingstone Polhammer 943, Independencia, Santiago 8380492, Chile.
| | - Taina Tervahartiala
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Diseases, Helsinki University Central Hospital, Stenbäckinkatu 9, PO BOX 100, Helsinki 00029, Finland.
| | - Rodrigo Lopez
- Department of Dentistry and Oral Health, Aarhus University, Faculty of Health Sciences Aarhus University Vennelyst Boulevard 9, Aarhus 8000, Denmark.
| | - Ulla Ashorn
- Center for Child Health Research, University of Tampere, Tampere 33014, Finland.
| | - Per Ashorn
- Department of Paediatrics, Tampere University Hospital Central Hospital PO BOX 2000, Tampere 33521, Finland.
| | - Dirk-Rolf Gieselmann
- Institute for Molecular Diagnostics (IMOD), Bonner Str. 84, Solingen 42697, Germany.
| | - Timo Sorsa
- Division of Periodontology, Department of Dental Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm SE-171 77, Sweden.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Singh H, Samani D, Nambiar N, Ghate MV, Gangakhedkar RR. Prevalence of MMP-8 gene polymorphisms in HIV-infected individuals and its association with HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder. Gene 2018; 646:83-90. [PMID: 29292194 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2017.12.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2017] [Revised: 12/26/2017] [Accepted: 12/28/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are well-known as mediators of neuroinflammation in HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND). Increased levels of MMP-8 have been observed in the HIV-infected patients. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the association of MMP-8 gene polymorphisms with modulation of HAND severity and its prevalence in HIV-infected and healthy individuals. We enrolled a total of 150 HIV-infected individuals, 50 HAND patients, 100 HIV-infected and 150 healthy individuals. MMP-8 (-799C/T, +17C/G) polymorphisms were genotyped by PCR-RFLP. MMP-8 -799TT genotype and +17G allele showed the higher risk for modulation of HAND severity (OR=2.20, P=0.19; OR=1.97, P=0.23). MMP-8 -799TT genotype differed significantly in HIV-infected individuals compared to healthy controls (20.0% vs. 11.3%, OR=2.36, P=0.048). Haplotype TG increased the risk for modulation of HAND severity (OR=2.29, P=0.29). MMP-8 -799TT and +17CG genotypes were overrepresented in the intermediate HIV disease stage compared with healthy controls (25.9% vs. 11.3%, OR=4.34, P=0.021, 14.8% vs. 9.3%, OR=2.88, P=0.11). MMP-8 +17CG genotype enhanced the risk for modulation of HAND severity in tobacco using HAND patients (OR=5.01, P=0.17). MMP-8 -799TT genotype was more frequent in tobacco using HIV-infected individuals compared with nonusers (26.3% vs. 16.7%, OR=2.08, P=0.32). MMP-8 +17CG genotype increased the risk for modulation of HAND severity in alcohol using HAND patients (OR=4.99, P=0.18). In conclusion, MMP-8 polymorphisms independently and with alcohol and tobacco usage revealed a trend of higher risk for the modulation of HAND severity. MMP-8 -799TT genotype was associated with the advancement of HIV disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- HariOm Singh
- Department of Molecular Biology, National AIDS Research Institute, Pune 411026, India.
| | - Dharmesh Samani
- Department of Molecular Biology, National AIDS Research Institute, Pune 411026, India
| | - Nayana Nambiar
- Department of Molecular Biology, National AIDS Research Institute, Pune 411026, India
| | - Manisha V Ghate
- Department of Clinical Sciences, National AIDS Research Institute, Pune 411026, India
| | - R R Gangakhedkar
- Department of Clinical Sciences, National AIDS Research Institute, Pune 411026, India
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Ferreira SMS, Gonçalves LS, Torres SR, Nogueira SA, Meiller TF. Lactoferrin levels in gingival crevicular fluid and saliva of HIV-infected patients with chronic periodontitis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 6:16-24. [PMID: 25331852 DOI: 10.1111/jicd.12017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2012] [Accepted: 09/30/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIM This study compared lactoferrin (LF) levels in the gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) and saliva between HIV-infected and noninfected patients with chronic periodontitis. METHODS For each subject, LF levels were analyzed in one shallow site (SS; PD ≤3 mm), one deep site (DS; PD >5 mm) and in resting whole saliva. Two groups, 28 HIV-infected and 10 noninfected, were selected. RESULTS Although the salivary LF levels were higher in HIV-infected than in noninfected individuals, especially in AIDS patients, this was not statistically significant (P > 0.05). Subgingival LF levels for SS and DS were lower among HIV-infected individuals, although AIDS patients showed the lowest levels. Age, smoking, gender, T CD4 lymphocytes levels and viral load did not influence subgingival LF levels, neither for SS nor for DP. Positive fungal culture was observed in 24 HIV-infected patients, but only observed in one in the control group. Overall, LF concentration was significantly higher in DS than SS, both in HIV-infected and noninfected individuals (P < 0.05) and salivary LF levels were always higher than GCF levels. CONCLUSION The data indicate that LF levels in the GCF and saliva are not different between HIV-infected and noninfected patients with chronic periodontitis.
Collapse
|
6
|
The role of thiamine in HIV infection. Int J Infect Dis 2012; 17:e221-7. [PMID: 23274124 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2012.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2012] [Revised: 11/21/2012] [Accepted: 11/24/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Patients infected with HIV have a high prevalence of thiamine deficiency. Genetic studies have provided the opportunity to determine which proteins link thiamine to HIV pathology, i.e., renin-angiotensin system, poly(ADP-ribosyl) polymerase 1, Sp1 promoter gene, transcription factor p53, apoptotic factor caspase 3, and glycogen synthetase kinase 3β. Thiamine also affects HIV through non-genomic factors, i.e., matrix metalloproteinase, vascular endothelial growth factor, heme oxygenase 1, the prostaglandins, cyclooxygenase 2, reactive oxygen species, and nitric oxide. In conclusion, thiamine may benefit HIV patients, but further investigation of the role of thiamine in HIV infection is needed.
Collapse
|
7
|
Kramer HB, Lavender KJ, Qin L, Stacey AR, Liu MKP, di Gleria K, Simmons A, Gasper-Smith N, Haynes BF, McMichael AJ, Borrow P, Kessler BM. Elevation of intact and proteolytic fragments of acute phase proteins constitutes the earliest systemic antiviral response in HIV-1 infection. PLoS Pathog 2010; 6:e1000893. [PMID: 20463814 PMCID: PMC2865525 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2009] [Accepted: 04/02/2010] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The earliest immune responses activated in acute human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection (AHI) exert a critical influence on subsequent virus spread or containment. During this time frame, components of the innate immune system such as macrophages and DCs, NK cells, beta-defensins, complement and other anti-microbial factors, which have all been implicated in modulating HIV infection, may play particularly important roles. A proteomics-based screen was performed on a cohort from whom samples were available at time points prior to the earliest positive HIV detection. The ability of selected factors found to be elevated in the plasma during AHI to inhibit HIV-1 replication was analyzed using in vitro PBMC and DC infection models. Analysis of unique plasma donor panels spanning the eclipse and viral expansion phases revealed very early alterations in plasma proteins in AHI. Induction of acute phase protein serum amyloid A (A-SAA) occurred as early as 5-7 days prior to the first detection of plasma viral RNA, considerably prior to any elevation in systemic cytokine levels. Furthermore, a proteolytic fragment of alpha-1-antitrypsin (AAT), termed virus inhibitory peptide (VIRIP), was observed in plasma coincident with viremia. Both A-SAA and VIRIP have anti-viral activity in vitro and quantitation of their plasma levels indicated that circulating concentrations are likely to be within the range of their inhibitory activity. Our results provide evidence for a first wave of host anti-viral defense occurring in the eclipse phase of AHI prior to systemic activation of other immune responses. Insights gained into the mechanism of action of acute-phase reactants and other innate molecules against HIV and how they are induced could be exploited for the future development of more efficient prophylactic vaccine strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Holger B. Kramer
- Henry Wellcome Building for Molecular Physiology, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Kerry J. Lavender
- The Edward Jenner Institute for Vaccine Research, University of Oxford, Compton, Berkshire, United Kingdom
| | - Li Qin
- Statistical Center for HIV/AIDS Research & Prevention, Vaccine and Infectious Disease Institute, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Andrea R. Stacey
- The Edward Jenner Institute for Vaccine Research, University of Oxford, Compton, Berkshire, United Kingdom
| | - Michael K. P. Liu
- Medical Research Council Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Katalin di Gleria
- Medical Research Council Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Alison Simmons
- Medical Research Council Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Nancy Gasper-Smith
- AIDS Vaccine Center, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Barton F. Haynes
- AIDS Vaccine Center, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Andrew J. McMichael
- Medical Research Council Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Persephone Borrow
- The Edward Jenner Institute for Vaccine Research, University of Oxford, Compton, Berkshire, United Kingdom
| | - Benedikt M. Kessler
- Henry Wellcome Building for Molecular Physiology, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Miller CS, Foley JD, Bailey AL, Campell CL, Humphries RL, Christodoulides N, Floriano PN, Simmons G, Bhagwandin B, Jacobson JW, Redding SW, Ebersole JL, McDevitt JT. Current developments in salivary diagnostics. Biomark Med 2010; 4:171-89. [PMID: 20387312 PMCID: PMC2857781 DOI: 10.2217/bmm.09.68] [Citation(s) in RCA: 210] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Salivary diagnostics is an emerging field that has progressed through several important developments in the past decade, including the publication of the human salivary proteome and the infusion of federal funds to integrate nanotechnologies and microfluidic engineering concepts into developing compact point-of-care devices for rapid analysis of this secretion. In this article, we discuss some of these developments and their relevance to the prognosis, diagnosis and management of periodontitis, as an oral target, and cardiovascular disease, as a systemic example for the potential of these biodiagnostics. Our findings suggest that several biomarkers are associated with distinct biological stages of these diseases and demonstrate promise as practical biomarkers in identifying and managing periodontal disease, and acute myocardial infarction. The majority of these studies have progressed through biomarker discovery, with the identified molecules requiring more robust clinical studies to enable substantive validation for disease diagnosis. It is predicted that with continued advances in this field the use of a combination of biomarkers in multiplex panels is likely to yield accurate screening tools for these diagnoses in the near future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Craig S Miller
- Oral Medicine Section, MN 324, University of Kentucky College of Dentistry, 800 Rose Street, Lexington, KY 40536-0297, USA Tel.: +1 859 323 5598
| | - Joseph D Foley
- Gill Heart Institute, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Alison L Bailey
- Gill Heart Institute, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Charles L Campell
- Gill Heart Institute, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
- Lexington Veterans Administration Hospital, Lexington, KY, USA
| | | | | | | | - Glennon Simmons
- Bioengineering & Chemistry, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
| | | | | | - Spencer W Redding
- Department of Dental Diagnostic Sciences, University of Texas, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Jeffrey L Ebersole
- Oral Medicine Section, MN 324, University of Kentucky College of Dentistry, 800 Rose Street, Lexington, KY 40536-0297, USA Tel.: +1 859 323 5598
| | - John T McDevitt
- Bioengineering & Chemistry, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Matrix metalloproteinase dysregulation in HIV infection: implications for therapeutic strategies. Trends Mol Med 2007; 13:449-59. [PMID: 18029231 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2007.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2007] [Revised: 09/10/2007] [Accepted: 09/12/2007] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The emerging role of immune activation and inflammation in the pathogenesis of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease has stimulated the search for new approaches for managing HIV infection. Recent evidence suggests that an imbalance between matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and endogenous tissue inhibitors of MMPs (TIMPs) might contribute to HIV-associated pathology by inducing remodelling of the extracellular matrix. Here, we discuss the evidence and the potential mechanisms for altered MMP or TIMP function in HIV infection and disease. Furthermore, we outline the possible medical implications for the use of compounds that target MMP activity, and we propose that antiretroviral drugs, particularly HIV protease inhibitors (PIs), and compounds with anti-inflammatory properties, such as statins, natural omega-3 fatty acids and tetracyclines, which inhibit MMP function, might represent useful therapeutic approaches to mitigate potential MMP-related damage during HIV infection.
Collapse
|