Cytotoxic action of tri-n-butyltin on dissociated rat cerebellar neurones: a flow-cytometric study

Modification of NMDA responses by tri-n-butyltin in rat brain neurons

1. The effects of the organotin, tri-n-butyltin (TBT), on N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) induced membrane currents were investigated in order to evaluate possible neuronal actions of this toxic environmental pollutant. Experiments were conducted on neurons acutely dissociated from the rat dorsal motor nucleus of vagus (DMV) using the nystatin-perforated patch clamp recording technique. 2. In Mg(2+)-free physiological recording solutions, the application of NMDA to single DMV neurons held at a holding potential (V(H)) of -40 mV evoked an inward current which rapidly reached a peak before declining to a steady-state inward current. This was followed, immediately after NMDA washout, by a transient outward current. TBT (100 nM) reversibly caused a slight reduction in the inward currents and greatly increased the amplitude of the outward currents. 3. The reversal potential of the NMDA-induced outward current in the presence of TBT was -86.7 mV, close to the theoretical K(+) equilibrium potential of -85.7 mV. 4. The NMDA-induced outward current was completely blocked when the K(+) in the internal solution was replaced with equimolar Cs(+). Under these conditions, the NMDA induced current was more sustained and was unaffected by TBT. 5. The NMDA-induced outward current was markedly inhibited by 5 mM tetraethylammonium chloride and 300 nM charybdotoxin, and it was abolished by removal of extracellular Ca(2+), suggesting that the outward current was due to the activation of Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channels by Ca(2+) influx through NMDA receptors. 6. In conclusion, in rat DMV neurons, TBT potentiates the Ca(2+)-activated K(+) current induced by NMDA application without having any direct effects on the NMDA-induced inward current. Given the significant role of NMDA receptor mediated excitation in various physiological and pathological processes, the modulation of this response by TBT may have an important influence on neuronal function.

Flow cytometric analysis on tri-n-butyltin-induced increase in annexin V binding to membranes of rat thymocytes

Effects of tri-n-butyltin chloride (TBT) on rat thymocytes were examined by using a flow cytometer and three fluorescent dyes (annexin V-FITC, ethidium bromide and fluo-3-AM) to further characterize its cytotoxic action. TBT at concentrations of 100 nM or greater, time- and dose-dependently increased the population of annexin V-positive live cells in the cell suspension. Most of cells became to be annexin V-positive within 60 min after the start of application of 300 nM TBT. Some of annexin V-positive live cells were further stained with ethidium, indicating that some of the cells were killed, in continued presence of TBT at 300 nM or greater. When the cells were exposed to 300 nM TBT only for 15 min, the population of annexin V-positive live cells increased after removal of TBT from incubation medium. TBT-induced increase in the population of annexin V-positive live cells was partly attenuated under Ca(2+)-free condition, although that was not the case for the dead cells. TBT at 30 nM or greater increased [Ca(2+)]i in a dose-dependent manner. Triethyltin and trimethyltin even at 1 μM did not increase the [Ca(2+)]i and the population of annexin V-positive live cells. The population of annexin V-positive live cells increased as the [Ca(2+)]i was increased by ionomycin, a calcium ionophore. Results suggest an involvement of Ca(2+) in some of TBT-induced cytotoxicity.

Suppression of calcium oscillation by tri-n-butyltin chloride in cultured rat hepatocytes

The effects of tri-n-butyltin chloride (TBT), an environmental pollutant, on cytoplasmic free calcium ion concentration ([Ca2+]i) were investigated in primary cultured rat hepatocytes. A high concentration (4.0 microM) of TBT increased resting levels of [Ca2+]i and then induced cell blebs resulting in cell death within 2 h. The increase in [Ca2+]i, but not the cell death, depended on the presence of extracellular Ca2+, suggesting that the increase in [Ca2+]i is not critical for the cytotoxicity of TBT. A low concentration (0.1 microM) of TBT did not have any toxic effect (decrease in ATP content, decrease in viability, and shape change) on cultured hepatocytes and did not change [Ca2+]i. However, the calcium responses induced by phenylephrine, [Arg8]-vasopressin, and ATP were suppressed in the cells pretreated with 0.1 microM TBT for 30 min. The suppression was not observed in the cells pretreated with 0.1 microM TBT for only 1 min. Pretreatment with 0.1 microM TBT for 30 min had no effect on the inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate content or its increase in response to hormonal stimulation. These results suggest that TBT suppresses hormone-induced calcium responses at nontoxic low concentrations.

Methylmercury toxicity in dissociated rat brain neurons: modification by l-cysteine and trimethylbenzylmercaptan and comparison with dimethylmercury and N-ethylmaleimide

The effects of methylmercury (MeHg) on dissociated rat cerebellar neurons were compared with those of MeHg conjugated with l-cysteine (MeHg-Cys conjugate), dimethylmercury (DiMeHg), N-ethylmaleimide (NEM) and ionomycin using a flow cytometer and two fluorescent dyes, fluo-3-AM and ethidium bromide. The efficacies of MeHg to increase intracellular concentration of Ca(2+) ([Ca(2+)]i) and to decrease cell viability were greatly reduced by conjugating MeHg with l-cysteine. It was not due to a decreased lipophilic property of MeHg-Cys because the conjugation of MeHg with trimethylbenzylmercaptane, a lipophilic substance, also reduced the efficacies. It seems that the reactivity of MeHg to SH-groups is responsible for the MeHg-induced toxicity since NEM increased [Ca(2+)]i and decreased cell viability while DiMeHg did not significantly affect them. However, the toxicity of MeHg was not explained only by the reactivity of MeHg to SH-groups since NEM-induced changes in fluo-3 and ethidium fluorescence were different from MeHg-induced ones. Ionomycin-induced changes in those fluorescence were also different although ionomycin decreased cell viability after increasing [Ca(2+)]i. Therefore, it is suggested that the mechanism of MeHg toxicity is more complicated than those of NEM and ionomycin.

Cytotoxic actions of FTY720, a novel immunosuppressant, on thymocytes and brain neurons dissociated from the rat

Effects of FTY720 (2-amino-2-(2-[4-octylphenyl]ethyl)-1,3-propanediol HCl), a novel immunosuppressant, were examined on neurons and thymocytes respectively dissociated from rat brains and thymus glands using a flow cytometer to see if FTY720 exerts cytotoxic actions not only on spleen cells as previously reported but also on the other cells. FTY720 at a concentration of 10 microM deteriorated almost all of the thymocytes, while it was not the case for brain neurons. FTY720 increased the intracellular concentration of Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) of thymocytes in both the presence and absence of external Ca2+, although the [Ca2+]i increased by FTY720 in the presence of external Ca2+ was much greater than that in the absence of external Ca2+. Thus, FTY720 may increase the membrane permeability of Ca2+ and release Ca2+ from intracellular Ca2+ stores in thymocytes. Furthermore, the number of thymocytes stained with ethidium, a dye impermeant to intact membranes, time-dependently increased after drug application. Therefore, FTY720 at concentrations of 3 - 10 microM non-specifically increases the membrane permeability of thymocytes, resulting in necrotic cell death, although FTY720 at micromolar concentrations was reported to induce apoptosis of spleen cells.

Fluorescent estimation on cytotoxicity of methylmercury in dissociated rat cerebellar neurons: its comparison with ionomycin

To study the cellular basis of the neurotoxicity of methylmercury, the effects of methylmercury on dissociated rat cerebellar neurons were examined using a flow cytometer, a confocal laser microscope and three fluorescent dyes, fluo-3 for monitoring the changes in intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) and for detecting live neurons, ethidium for assessing the neurons that are dead or have compromised membranes, and 5-chloromethylfluorescein (CMF) for estimating the cellular content of nonprotein thiols. Methylmercury at concentrations of 1 μM or greater increased the [Ca(2+)](i) of almost all neurons. Prolonged exposure to methylmercury (3 and 10 μM) produced a further increase in [Ca(2+)](i), in association with compromising membranes in some neurons. Thereafter, methylmercury induced blebs on membranes of some neurons with increased [Ca(2+)](i). Methylmercury at concentrations of 0.3 μM or greater dose-dependently decreased the cellular content of nonprotein thiols. Results suggest that methylmercury may induce the loss of membrane integrity through destabilized Ca(2+) homeostasis and oxidative stress in mammalian brain neurons.