Stressors and affective states among professional rugby union players

Real-World Fatigue Testing in Professional Rugby Union: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Professional rugby union is a high-intensity contact sport with position-specific high training and match volumes across a season that may lead to periods of fatigue if above a typically experienced threshold. This study assesses the influence of match play and/or training on fatigue levels in rugby union players.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to perform a systematic review and meta-analysis of measures used to assess fatigue status in male professional rugby union players.

METHODS

Using electronic databases (PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, EMBASE, and MEDLINE), a systematic review of fatigue testing in rugby union was conducted on (1) neuromuscular, (2) subjective self-report, (3) biochemical, and (4) heart rate-derived measures.

RESULTS

Thirty-seven articles were included in this systematic review, of which 14 were further included in a meta-analysis. The results of the meta-analysis revealed small, yet not significant, decreases in countermovement jump height immediately after (effect size [ES] =  - 0.29; 95% confidence interval [CI] - 0.64 to 0.06), 24 h (ES =  - 0.43; 95% CI - 3.99 to 3.21), and 48 h (ES =  - 0.22; 95% CI - 0.47 to 0.02) after exposure to rugby union match play or training. Reported wellness (ES =  - 0.33; 95% CI - 1.70 to 1.04) and tiredness (ES =  - 0.14; 95% CI - 1.30 to 1.03) declined over a period of a few weeks (however, the results were not-statistically significant), meanwhile muscle soreness increased (ES = 0.91; 95% CI 0.06 to 1.75) within the 96 h after the exposure to rugby union match play or training. Finally, while cortisol levels (ES = 1.87; 95% CI - 1.54 to 5.29) increased, testosterone declined (ES =  - 1.54; 95% CI - 7.16 to 4.08) within the 24 h after the exposure. However, these results were not statistically significant.

CONCLUSIONS

Subjective measures of muscle soreness can be used to assess fatigue after match play and training in rugby union players. Within-study and between-study variability for countermovement jump height, biochemical markers, and heart rate-derived measures means the utility (practical application) of these measures to assess fatigue in professional rugby union players after matches and training is unclear.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

PROSPERO ID: CRD42020216706.

Seasonal changes in physiological and psychological parameters of stress in collegiate swimmers

To investigate the seasonal changes in physiological and psychological parameters of stress in collegiate swimmers. Fifteen NCAA Division I swimmers (8 men) participated in a tethered anaerobic swim test to determine physiological responses in an ecologically-relevant, graded exercise test. Wisconsin Upper Respiratory Symptom Survey (WURSS-21), Activation-Deactivation Adjective Check List (AD-ACL), Daily Analysis of Life Demands of Athletes (DALDA), and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index were assessed at post-season in April (V1), the end of off-season in June (V2), and pre-season in October (V3). The percent change was determined from V2-V1 (off-season phase), V3-V2 (pre-season phase), V1-V3 (in-season phase). Spearman's rho correlation was used to examine associations between change in physiological and psychological outcomes. All data results showed a better swim performance occurred at V2. Men tended to have faster speed (p = 0.07) in fewer strokes (p = 0.10) and greater work per stroke (p = 0.10) at V2 than V1. Women were faster during V2 compared to V1 (p = 0.02) and V3 (p = 0.05). Women had fewer strokes (p = 0.02) and greater work per stroke (p = 0.01) at V2 compared to V3. Women had the lowest HR and lactate concentration at V3 compared to other visits (p < 0.05). During the in-season phase, swim speed decreased the greatest extent and stress sources and symptoms assessed by DALDA had greatest elevation (p < 0.05). An increased in stress sources and symptoms assessed by DALDA was associated with an increase in upper respiratory illness from WURSS-21 (rho = 0.44, p = 0.009), being less energetic (rho = - 0.35, p = 0.04) and greater tension state (rho = 0.49, p = 0.003; AD-ACL), and a decrease in swim speed (rho =- 0.38, p = 0.03). Swim performance peaked at off-season when psychological stress was at its lowest. The relationship between DALDA scores with psychological parameters and swim performance suggested physiological and psychological parameters of stress is an important aspect to avoid overtraining when approaching high swim performance.

Impact of Cognitive Measures and Sleep on Acute Squat Strength Performance and Perceptual Responses Among Well-Trained Men and Women

ABSTRACT

Haischer, MH, Cooke, DM, Carzoli, JP, Johnson, TK, Shipherd, AM, Zoeller, RF, Whitehurst, M, and Zourdos, MC. Impact of cognitive measures and sleep on acute squat strength performance and perceptual responses among well-trained men and women. J Strength Cond Res 35(2S): S16-S22, 2021-This study assessed the efficacy of currently used assessments for sleep, anxiety, and stress in predicting 1-repetition maximum (1RM) back squat performance. Fifty-three men (age, 23 ± 3 years; body mass, 86.67 ± 13.93 kg; training age, 6.0 ± 2.5 years; 1RM = 163.5 ± 39.5 kg) and 15 women (age, 21 ± 1.5 years; body mass, 63.34 ± 9.6 kg; training age, 4 ± 1.5 years; 1RM = 81.5 ± 12.5 kg) participated. Subjects completed the Daily Analysis of Life Demands for Athletes (DALDA), the revised Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2R), and Oviedo Sleep Questionnaire (OSQ) to evaluate stress, anxiety, and sleep, respectively. Subjects then completed the perceived self-efficacy (PSE) scale, to predict what loads they were 100, 75, and 50% confident that they could lift for a 1RM; then completed 1RM testing with rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and average concentric velocity (ACV) obtained on each attempt. The performance-dependent variable was calculated by subtracting the PSE responses from the actual 1RM (1RM-PSE difference). Bootstrapping with 1,000 replicate samples was used with linear regression to increased robustness of the statistical analyses, and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated. Hours of sleep was an inverse predictor of ACV (p = 0.014; 95% CI = 0.046 to-0.011) and a positive predictor of RPE (p = 0.005; 95% CI = 0.068-0.342). Furthermore, the hypersomnia subscale of the OSQ was a negative predictor of 1RM-PSE difference at 50% confidence (p = 0.028; 95% CI = -3.507 to -0.528), and CSAI-2R total score was a negative predictor of RPE at 1RM (p = 0.043; 95% CI = -0.041 to -0.003); however, the DALDA did not exhibit any significant relationships. These data highlight the importance of monitoring anxiety and sleep when assessing readiness for maximal strength performance.

Relationship between pre-training wellness scores and internal and external training loads in a Division I women's lacrosse team

This study examined the relationship between pre-training wellness scores and internal and external training load outputs during the preparation phase of a Division I women's collegiate lacrosse team. Athletes (n = 27) logged daily wellness (sleep, energy, stress, and how their muscles felt), session ratings of perceived exertion, and training metrics for 13 weeks. Load metrics were collected with microtechnology units. Repeated measures mixed linear models were constructed to evaluate the relationships between wellness and training load. The largest effects observed indicated: improved sleep was predictive of increased total distance (by as much as 310.5 m, 95%CI 36.7-584.3), high-intensity distance (by as much as 72.7 m, 95%CI 17.2-128.3), and Athlete Load (by as much as 6.8AU, 95%CI 1.8-11.8); more energy was predictive of increased total distance (by as much as 323.6 m, 95%CI 52.2-594.9) and Athlete Load (by as much as 5.6AU. 95%CI 0.6-10.5). For each one-unit increase in overall wellness score, total distance (3.5 m, 95%CI 1.2-15.1) and Athlete Load (0.2AU, 95%CI 0.0-0.3) increased. Pre-training wellness scores and sub-scores are predictive of external load training output. Monitoring athlete wellness systematically can help coaches with decision-making relevant to training and game performance.

Athlete-Reported Outcome Measures for Monitoring Training Responses: A Systematic Review of Risk of Bias and Measurement Property Quality According to the COSMIN Guidelines

BACKGROUND

Athlete-reported outcome measures (AROMs) are frequently used in research and practice but no studies have examined their psychometric properties.

OBJECTIVES

Part 1-identify the most commonly used AROMs in sport for monitoring training responses; part 2-assess risk of bias, measurement properties, and level of evidence, based on the COnsensus-based Standards for the selection of health Measurement INstruments (COSMIN) guidelines.

STUDY APPRAISAL AND SYNTHESIS METHODS

Methodological quality of the studies, quality of measurement properties, and level of evidence were determined using the COSMIN checklist and criteria.

RESULTS

Part 1-from 9446 articles screened for title and abstract, 310 out of 334 full texts were included; 53.9% of the AROMs contained multiple items, while 46.1% contained single items. Part 2-from 1895 articles screened for title and abstract, 71 were selected. Most measurement properties of multiple-item AROMs were adequate, but content validity and measurement error were inadequate. With the exclusion of 2 studies examining reliability and responsiveness, no validity studies were found for single items.

CONCLUSIONS

The measurement properties of multiple-item AROMs derived from psychometrics were acceptable (with the exclusion of content validity and measurement error). The single-item AROMs most frequently used in sport science have not been validated. Additionally, nonvalidated modified versions of the originally nonvalidated items are common. Until proper validation studies are completed, all conclusions based on these AROMs are questionable. Established reference methods, such as those of clinimetrics, should be used to develop and assess the validity of AROMs.

Performance indicators during international rugby union matches are influenced by a combination of physiological and contextual variables

OBJECTIVES

Research has linked physiological (e.g., hormonal, affective, fatigue) outcomes to performance indicators in rugby competition, but no work has integrated and contextualised these factors within a test-match environment. We addressed this gap by monitoring 29 athletes from a training squad across eight international rugby matches.

DESIGN

Longitudinal observational study.

METHODS

Pre-match (8-9am) measures of salivary testosterone and cortisol concentrations, sleep duration, pulse rate, muscle soreness, stress, mood, and motivation were taken. Contextual factors were playing time, internal training load (ITL), test-match experience, opponent ranking, and crowd size. Performance was indexed by coach and player ratings of performance (CRP, PRP) and quantitative metrics; offloads, turnovers, runs with ball in hand (RWB), tackles, passes, and defenders beaten (DFB).

RESULTS

Morning cortisol, sleep and mood were positively related to CRP and PRP (standardised coefficient estimates from 0.17 to 0.22). Cortisol, sleep, stress, mood and motivation were associated with one (or more) of turnovers, RWB, tackles, passes and DFB (incidence rate ratio [IRR] from 0.74 to 1.40). Playing time was positively related to all quantitative performance indicators (IRR from 1.01 to 1.04) with ITL, opponent ranking, and crowd size predicting selected outputs (IRR from 0.89 to 1.15). The explanatory models varied (conditional R²=0.15-0.83) but were generally stronger with both physiological and contextual inputs.

CONCLUSIONS

Multiple physiological and contextual factors appear to contribute to player performance in international rugby competition. Measurement of these factors may guide training and management practices, a potential practical consequence but also advancing understanding from marker to causal link.

“Someone to Talk to”: Influence of Player Welfare Provision on Mental Health in Professional Rugby League Players

Player welfare is an important development in supporting elite athletes during their professional careers. Little is known about how player engagement with player welfare provision impact on mental health. Over two consecutive years, professional rugby football league (RFL) players were invited to complete an anonymous online survey assessing psychological stress, athletic identity, and attitudes to player welfare provision. Findings indicate that nearly half of respondents experienced symptoms of anxiety and depression. Multivariate analyses suggest that higher psychological stress and athletic identity and less knowledge and less positive attitudes to RFL mental health support is associated with worse mental health, whereas older age is associated with better mental health. The study has identified some key variables to focus on in developing player care and support management, and also suggest directions for future research guiding player welfare support, especially regarding increasing positive attitudes to mental health supports.

Statistical Review and Match Analysis of Rugby World Cups Finals

The aim of this study was to describe the game related statistics and match analysis of rugby world cups finals from 1987 to 2015. Video recordings of all (n = 8 matches) rugby world cup finals were used for the purpose of this study. Games were analysed using the video analysis software (Sports code V8.9, Sportstec, Australia) and supplementary data were collected from the official reports published by the International Rugby Board and from webpages of Rugby World Cups. Magnitude of differences between the winners and losers was assessed mechanistically. Only 5 tries in total were scored in the last 8 rugby world cup finals. The main two modes of scoring points were penalty kicks and drop goals. Winning teams attempted more penalty kicks, yet seemed to miss more. The number of drop goals was similar between winning and losing teams. These findings highlight the significance of having an on form place-kicker and from a defensive perspective, conceding fewer penalties in kickable positions. Winners of the Rugby World Cup final won more scrums and lost few line-outs, emphasising the importance of winning the set-pieces. Further establishment of these variables and their influence on performance may be used to evaluate team performances and plan more effective tactical approaches to competition.

Perceptions of the Coach-Athlete Relationship Predict the Attainment of Mastery Achievement Goals Six Months Later: A Two-Wave Longitudinal Study among F. A. Premier League Academy Soccer Players

All football teams that compete within the F. A. Premier League possess an academy, whose objective is to produce more and better home-grown players that are capable of playing professionally. These young players spend a large amount of time with their coach, but little is known about player's perception of the coach-athlete relationship within F. A. Premier League Academies. The objectives of this study were to examine whether perceptions of the coach-athlete relationship changed over six months and if the coach-athlete relationship predicted self-reported goal achievement among F. A. Premier League academy players. This study included cross-sectional (n = 104) and longitudinal (n = 52) assessments, in which academy soccer players completed a measure of the coach-athlete relationship and goal achievement across either one or two time periods. The cross-sectional data were subjected to bivariate correlations, whereas the longitudinal data were analyzed using multiple regressions. Perceptions of the coach-athlete relationship remained stable over time. The coach-athlete relationship predicted the achievement of mastery goals six months later. Enhancing the quality of the coach-athlete relationship among elite adolescent athletes appears to be a suitable way of maximizing mastery achievement goals, particularly among developmental athletes who participate in team sports.

Psychometric properties of the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS): measurement invariance between athletes and non-athletes and construct validity

Background

Although Perceived Stress Scale (PSS, Cohen, Kamarack & Mermelstein, 1983) has been validated and widely used in many domains, there is still no validation in sports by comparing athletes and non-athletes and examining related psychometric indices.

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to examine the measurement invariance of PSS between athletes and non-athletes, and examine construct validity and reliability in the sports contexts.

Methods

Study 1 sampled 359 college student-athletes (males = 233; females = 126) and 242 non-athletes (males = 124; females = 118) and examined factorial structure, measurement invariance and internal consistency. Study 2 sampled 196 student-athletes (males = 139, females = 57, M_age = 19.88 yrs, SD = 1.35) and examined discriminant validity and convergent validity of PSS. Study 3 sampled 37 student-athletes to assess test-retest reliability of PSS.

Results

Results found that 2-factor PSS-10 fitted the model the best and had appropriate reliability. Also, there was a measurement invariance between athletes and non-athletes; and PSS positively correlated with athletic burnout and life stress but negatively correlated with coping efficacy provided evidence of discriminant validity and convergent validity. Further, the test-retest reliability for PSS subscales was significant (r = .66 and r = .50).

Discussion

It is suggested that 2-factor PSS-10 can be a useful tool in assessing perceived stress either in sports or non-sports settings. We suggest future study may use 2-factor PSS-10 in examining the effects of stress on the athletic injury, burnout, and psychiatry disorders.

How stressors are dynamically appraised within a team during a game: An exploratory study in basketball

Little is known about how team sport athletes individually and collectively experience sources of stress during competitive sport encounters. This study aimed to examine the nature of the stressors team sport athletes appraised during games at individual and team levels, as well as their degree of synchronization during an unfolding game. Through individual self-confrontation interviews, the activities of nine basketball players of the same team were examined in detail. The results revealed that 12 categories of stressors were reported, and categorized into two larger units reflecting stressors perceived as affecting (a) "the team functioning as a whole" and (b) "a player's own functioning". Thus, the nature and degree of similarity of the game-specific stressors experienced by basketball players within a single team were identified during a game. In addition, the findings showed six different patterns of synchronizations of team members' stressors, as well as their changes over the course of the game. They provided support for the synchronized appraisal and experience of stressors within a team during a game. By adopting an interpersonal perspective and examining the temporal interplay in team members' activities, this study shed light on stress within teams.

Stress responses to short-term intensified and reduced training in competitive weightlifters

We sought to identify and evaluate the tolerance to, and consequences of, short-term variations in training load in competitive weightlifters. Seven international-level lifters performed 1 week of initial training followed by 2 weeks of intensified (INT: +100%, 36.5 ± 11.3 × 10(3)  kg/week) and 1 week of subsequently reduced (RED: -25%) training within their annual program. After INT, but not RED, 90 min of weightlifting increased mRNA levels of chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 4 (CCL4), chemokine (C-X-C motif) receptor 4 (CXCR4) and cellular stress-associated DNA-damage-inducible transcript 4 (DDIT4) in peripheral blood mononuclear cells by 40-240%. Resting- and weightlifting-induced changes in plasma protein carbonyls, indicative of oxidative stress, but not pro-inflammatory CCL4 concentrations differed between INT and RED. Symptoms of stress (Daily Analysis of Life Demands of Athletes questionnaire) were reported as worse than normal more frequently during INT and RED than initial training. Global (negative) mood state increased during INT and declined during RED. Maximal snatch (-4.3 ± 3.7%) and vertical jump (-7.2 ± 6.5%), but not clean and jerk, were reduced after INT and restored after RED. Chemokine signaling may thus be part of the stress response to intense weightlifting and short-term reductions in training load support recovery from periodic INT training in weightlifters.

Perceptions of wellness to monitor adaptive responses to training and competition in elite Australian football

Perceptions of wellness are often used by athletes and coaches to assess adaptive responses to training. The purpose of this research was to describe how players were coping with the demands of elite level Australian football over a competitive season using subjective ratings of physical and psychological wellness and to assess the ecological validity of such a monitoring approach. Twenty-seven players completed ratings for 9 items (fatigue, general muscle, hamstring, quadriceps, pain/stiffness, power, sleep quality, stress, well-being). Players subjectively rated each item as they arrived at the training or competition venue on a 1-5 visual analog scale, with 1 representing the positive end of the continuum. A total of 2,583 questionnaires were analyzed from completions on 183 days throughout the season (92 ± 24 per player, 103 ± 20 per week; mean ± SD). Descriptive statistics and multilevel modelling were used to understand how player ratings of wellness varied over the season and during the week leading into game day and whether selected player characteristics moderated these relationships. Results indicated that subjective ratings of physical and psychological wellness were sensitive to weekly training manipulations (i.e., improve steadily throughout the week to a game day low, p < 0.001), to periods of unloading during the season (i.e., a week of no competition, p < 0.05) and to individual player characteristics (e.g., muscle strain after a game was poorer in players with high maximum speed, p < 0.01). It is concluded that self-reported player ratings of wellness provide a useful tool for coaches and practitioners to monitor player responses to the rigorous demands of training, competition, and life as a professional athlete.

Mechanisms linking affective reactions to competition-related and competition-extraneous concerns in male martial artists

The main aim of this study was to examine affective linkages between competition-related and competition-extraneous concern domains. A secondary purpose was to establish the contributions of pre-competition affects to post-competition performance appraisals, independent of pre-competition performance expectations. Thirty-nine highly skilled male martial artists were assessed at five random times a day for a week and 1 h before a major competition on affective states and sources of concern. They also reported their performance expectations and post-competition performance appraisals. Affective states triggered by competition-related and competition-extraneous concerns persisted in time. Carry-over effects were stronger after reports of competition-related concerns, emphasizing the subjective importance of the competitive event. Although positive (enjoyment and surprise) and negative (sadness and guilt) affective spill-over was observed from competition-extraneous to competition-related concerns, the reverse held true only for disgust. These findings may be due to the athletes' ability to regulate affective reactions within a sporting setting, in particular. Spill-over from competition-extraneous to competition-related concerns is indicative of a lesser degree of control over work/study and family life. Given that average weekly negative affects and anger/disgust were independent predictors of post-competition performance appraisals, the phenomenon of spill-over and other affective linkage mechanisms in sport warrant further investigation.

Overtraining During Preseason: Stress and Negative Affective States Among Professional Rugby Union Players

The aim of this study was to explore the perceived factors that contribute to stress and negative affective states during preseason among a sample of professional rugby union players. The participants were 12 male professional rugby union players between 18 and 21 years of age (M age = 19 years, SD = 0.85). Data were collected via semistructured interviews and analyzed using an inductive content analysis procedure. Players identified training (structure and volume), the number of matches played and the recovery period, diet, sleep, and travel as factors that they believed contributed to their experience of stress and negative affective states. The present findings suggest that players may require more time to recover between matches, alongside interventions to help players manage the symptoms of stress and negative affect during times in which players are overtraining.

Predictors of pre- and post-competition affective states in male martial artists: a multilevel interactional approach

The aims of this study were to examine (a) the effects of competition-related and competition-extraneous concerns on affective states; (b) the relationships of primary and secondary appraisal with affective states and (c) the main and moderating effects of personality traits on pre- and post-competition affects. Thirty-nine male elite martial artists were assessed on 12 affective states, concerns and dimensions of primary and secondary appraisal at five random times a day across 1 week before and 3 days after a competition. On the competition day, they were assessed 1 h before and immediately after the contest. Competitive trait anxiety, neuroticism and extraversion were measured at the start of the study. The competition was the most significant and stressful event experienced in the examined period and had a pervasive influence on athletes' affective states. All examined appraisal and personality factors were somewhat associated with pre- and post-competition affective states. Competitive trait anxiety was a key moderator of the relationship between cognitive appraisal and affective states. This study supports the idea that cognitive appraisal and situational and personality factors exert main and interactive effects on athletes' pre- and post-competition affects. These factors need to be accounted for in planning of emotion regulation interventions.