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Michel JM, Hettinger Z, Ambrosio F, Egan B, Roberts MD, Ferrando AA, Graham ZA, Bamman MM. Mitigating skeletal muscle wasting in unloading and augmenting subsequent recovery. J Physiol 2024. [PMID: 39031694 DOI: 10.1113/jp284301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2024] [Accepted: 06/20/2024] [Indexed: 07/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Skeletal muscle wasting is the hallmark pathophysiological adaptation to unloading or disuse that demonstrates the dependency on frequent mechanical stimulation (e.g. muscle activation and subsequent loading) for homeostasis of normally load-bearing muscles. In the absence of mitigation strategies, no mammalian organism is resistant to muscle atrophy driven by unloading. Given the profound impact of unloading-induced muscle wasting on physical capacity, metabolic health and immune function; mitigation strategies during unloading and/or augmentation approaches during recovery have broad healthcare implications in settings of bed-bound hospitalization, cast immobilization and spaceflight. This topical review aims to: (1) provide a succinct, state-of-the-field summary of seminal and recent findings regarding the mechanisms of unloading-induced skeletal muscle wasting; (2) discuss unsuccessful vs. promising mitigation and recovery augmentation strategies; and (3) identify knowledge gaps ripe for future research. We focus on the rapid muscle atrophy driven by relatively short-term mechanical unloading/disuse, which is in many ways mechanistically distinct from both hypermetabolic muscle wasting and denervation-induced muscle atrophy. By restricting this discussion to mechanical unloading during which all components of the nervous system remain intact (e.g. without denervation models), mechanical loading requiring motor and sensory neural circuits in muscle remain viable targets for both mitigation and recovery augmentation. We emphasize findings in humans with comparative discussions of studies in rodents which enable elaboration of key mechanisms. We also discuss what is currently known about the effects of age and sex as biological factors, and both are highlighted as knowledge gaps and novel future directions due to limited research.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Max Michel
- School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, USA
| | - Zachary Hettinger
- Discovery Center for Musculoskeletal Recovery, Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Fabrisia Ambrosio
- Discovery Center for Musculoskeletal Recovery, Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Brendan Egan
- School of Health & Human Performance, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland
- Healthspan, Resilience and Performance Research, Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, Pensacola, Florida, USA
| | | | - Arny A Ferrando
- Healthspan, Resilience and Performance Research, Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, Pensacola, Florida, USA
| | - Zachary A Graham
- Healthspan, Resilience and Performance Research, Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, Pensacola, Florida, USA
| | - Marcas M Bamman
- Healthspan, Resilience and Performance Research, Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, Pensacola, Florida, USA
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Rowe GS, Blazevich AJ, Taylor JL, Pulverenti T, Haff GG. Can the cross-education of strength attenuate the impact of detraining after a period of strength training? A quasi-randomized trial. Eur J Appl Physiol 2024:10.1007/s00421-024-05509-z. [PMID: 38809477 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-024-05509-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 05/13/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE Unilateral strength training may attenuate the decline in muscle strength and size in homologous, contralateral muscles. This study aimed to determine whether the cross-education of strength could specifically attenuate the effects of detraining immediately after a short (prehabilitation-type) period of strength training. METHODS Twenty-six strength-trained participants were assigned to either four weeks of unilateral strength training of the stronger arm (UNI) or detraining (Detrain). Motor evoked potential (MEP) and cortical silent period (cSP) responses, muscle cross-sectional area (CSAFlexor; peripheral quantitative computed tomography) and maximal strength, rate of force development (RFD) and muscle activation (EMG) were examined in both elbow flexors before and after the intervention period. RESULTS In UNI, one-repetition maximum (1-RM) strength improved in both the trained (∆ = 2.0 ± 0.9 kg) and non-trained (∆ = 0.8 ± 0.9 kg) arms despite cessation of training of the weaker arm, whereas 1-RM strength was unchanged in Detrain. Maximal voluntary isometric contraction, isokinetic peak torque, and RFD did not change in either group. No neural changes were detected in UNI, but cSP increased in Detrain (∆ = 0.010 ± 0.015 s). CSAFlexor increased in the trained arm (∆ = 51 ± 43 mm2) but decreased in the non-trained arm (∆ = -53 ± 50 mm2) in UNI. CSAFlexor decreased in both arms in Detrain and at a similar rate to the non-trained arm in UNI. CONCLUSION UNI attenuated the effects of detraining in the weaker arm as shown by the improvement in 1-RM strength. However, the cross-education of strength did not attenuate the decline in muscle size in the contralateral arm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grant S Rowe
- School of Psychology, College of Health and Education, Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch, Perth, 6150, Australia.
| | - Anthony J Blazevich
- Discipline of Exercise and Sports Science, School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Perth, Australia
| | - Janet L Taylor
- Discipline of Exercise and Sports Science, School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Perth, Australia
| | | | - G Gregory Haff
- Directorate of Sport, Exercise, and Physiotherapy, University of Salford, Greater Manchester, UK
- Strength and Power Research Group, School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Perth, Australia
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Yildiz TI, Turhan E, Huri G, Ocguder DA, Duzgun I. Cross-education effects on shoulder rotator muscle strength and function after shoulder stabilization surgery: a randomized controlled trial. J Shoulder Elbow Surg 2024; 33:804-814. [PMID: 38122890 DOI: 10.1016/j.jse.2023.10.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Revised: 10/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
HYPOTHESIS This study aimed to investigate the effects of cross education (CE) on rotator cuff (RC) muscle strength recovery and shoulder function in patients who underwent arthroscopic anterior shoulder stabilization surgery. METHODS Twenty-eight patients who underwent shoulder stabilization surgery were included in the study (age, 25 ± 6 years; body mass index, 24.8 ± 3.6 kg/m2). The patients were randomly divided into either the CE group (n = 14) or the control group (n = 14). All patients received a standardized rehabilitation program until the end of the 12th postoperative week. The CE group also received isokinetic training of the nonoperative shoulder focusing on the RC muscles (twice a week, 3 sets of 10 repetitions). RC muscle strength was measured preoperatively and at 3 and 6 months postoperatively using an isokinetic dynamometer at 60°/s and 180°/s angular velocities. Shoulder function was assessed with the Closed Kinetic Chain Upper Extremity Stability Test and Y-Balance Test-Upper Quarter. Analyses of covariance were used for the statistical analyses. RESULTS At 6 months postoperatively, at 60°/s angular velocity, there was higher internal rotator strength in the CE group (P = .02) and similar external rotator strength (P = .62) between the groups. At 180°/s angular velocity, both internal rotator strength (P = .04) and external rotator strength (P = .02) were higher in the CE group. The Closed Kinetic Chain Upper Extremity Stability Test (P = .47), Y-Balance Test-Upper Quarter (P = .95), and Western Ontario Shoulder Instability Index (P = .12) scores were similar between the groups at 6 months after surgery. CONCLUSIONS CE in the early period of postoperative rehabilitation following stabilization surgery improves RC strength recovery. However, it has no effect on functional outcomes. Integrating a CE program into the postoperative rehabilitation protocol may help to improve dynamic shoulder stability but not functional capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taha Ibrahim Yildiz
- Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey.
| | - Egemen Turhan
- Department of Orthopedy and Traumatology, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Gazi Huri
- Department of Orthopedy and Traumatology, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Durmus Ali Ocguder
- Department of Orthopedy and Traumatology, Ankara Sehir Hastanesi, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Irem Duzgun
- Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
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Gómez-Feria J, Martín-Rodríguez JF, Mir P. Corticospinal adaptations following resistance training and its relationship with strength: A systematic review and multivariate meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2023; 152:105289. [PMID: 37353049 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Revised: 05/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/25/2023]
Abstract
Neural adaptations to resistance training (RT) and their correlation with muscle strength remain partially understood. We conducted a systematic review and multivariate meta-analysis to examine the effects of metronome-paced (MP), self-paced (SP), and isometric (IM) training on M1 and corticospinal pathway activity. Following MP RT, a significant increase in corticospinal excitability was observed, correlating with increased strength. Conversely, no significant relationship was found after SP or IM training. RT also reduced the duration of the cortical silent period, but this change did not predict strength changes and was not specific to any training modality. No significant effects were found for short-interval intracortical inhibition. Our findings suggest that changes in corticospinal excitability may contribute to strength gains after RT. Furthermore, the relationship between these adaptations and strength appears dependent on the type of training performed.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Gómez-Feria
- Unidad de Trastornos del Movimiento, Servicio de Neurología y Neurofisiología Clínica, Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla, Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Juan Francisco Martín-Rodríguez
- Unidad de Trastornos del Movimiento, Servicio de Neurología y Neurofisiología Clínica, Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla, Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain; Departamento de Psicología Experimental, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain.
| | - Pablo Mir
- Unidad de Trastornos del Movimiento, Servicio de Neurología y Neurofisiología Clínica, Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla, Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain; Departamento de Medicina, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain.
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Voskuil CC, Andrushko JW, Huddleston BS, Farthing JP, Carr JC. Exercise prescription and strategies to promote the cross-education of strength: a scoping review. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2023; 48:569-582. [PMID: 37156010 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2023-0041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
The cross-education of strength is moderated by exercise design and prescription in clinical and non-clinical populations. This review synthesizes the available evidence regarding exercise design strategies for unilateral resistance training and provides evidence-based recommendations for the prescription of unilateral training to maximize the cross-education of strength. Greater insights regarding the timing and effectiveness of cross-education interventions in clinical scenarios will strengthen the use of unilateral resistance training for individuals who may benefit from its use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caleb C Voskuil
- Department of Kinesiology, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth TX, USA
| | - Justin W Andrushko
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physical Therapy, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver BC, Canada
| | - Boglarka S Huddleston
- Health Sciences Librarian, Mary C. Burnett Library, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth TX, USA
| | | | - Joshua C Carr
- Department of Kinesiology, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth TX, USA
- Department of Medical Education, Texas Christian University School of Medicine, Fort Worth TX, USA
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CHEN TREVORC, WU SHANGHEN, CHEN HSINLIAN, TSENG WEICHIN, TSENG KUOWEI, KANG HSINGYU, NOSAKA KAZUNORI. Effects of Unilateral Eccentric versus Concentric Training of Nonimmobilized Arm during Immobilization. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2023; 55:1195-1207. [PMID: 36849120 PMCID: PMC10241444 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000003140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/01/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The present study tested the hypothesis that eccentric training (ET) of nonimmobilized arm would attenuate negative effects of immobilization and provide greater protective effects against muscle damage induced by eccentric exercise after immobilization, when compared with concentric training (CT). METHODS Sedentary young men were placed to ET, CT, or control group ( n = 12 per group), and their nondominant arms were immobilized for 3 wk. During the immobilization period, the ET and CT groups performed five sets of six dumbbell curl eccentric-only and concentric-only contractions, respectively, at 20%-80% of maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVCiso) strength over six sessions. MVCiso torque, root-mean square (RMS) of electromyographic activity during MVCiso, and bicep brachii muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) were measured before and after immobilization for both arms. All participants performed 30 eccentric contractions of the elbow flexors (30EC) by the immobilized arm after the cast was removed. Several indirect muscle damage markers were measured before, immediately after, and for 5 d after 30EC. RESULTS ET increased MVCiso (17% ± 7%), RMS (24% ± 8%), and CSA (9% ± 2%) greater ( P < 0.05) than CT (6% ± 4%, 9% ± 4%, 3% ± 2%) for the trained arm. The control group showed decreases in MVCiso (-17% ± 2%), RMS (-26% ± 6%), and CSA (-12% ± 3%) for the immobilized arm, but these changes were attenuated greater ( P < 0.05) by ET (3% ± 3%, -0.1% ± 2%, 0.1% ± 0.3%) than CT (-4% ± 2%, -4% ± 2%, -1.3% ± 0.4%). Changes in all muscle damage markers after 30EC were smaller ( P < 0.05) for the ET and CT than the control group, and ET than the CT group (e.g., peak plasma creatine kinase activity: ET, 860 ± 688 IU·L -1 ; CT, 2390 ± 1104 IU·L -1 ; control, 7819 ± 4011 IU·L -1 ). CONCLUSIONS These results showed that ET of the nonimmobilized arm was effective for eliminating the negative effects of immobilization and attenuating eccentric exercise-induced muscle damage after immobilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- TREVOR C. CHEN
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei City, TAIWAN
| | - SHANG-HEN WU
- Department of Physical Education, Health and Recreation, National Chiayi University, Chiayi County, TAIWAN
| | - HSIN-LIAN CHEN
- Department of Physical Education, Health and Recreation, National Chiayi University, Chiayi County, TAIWAN
| | - WEI-CHIN TSENG
- Department of Physical Education, University of Taipei, Taipei City, TAIWAN
| | - KUO-WEI TSENG
- Department of Exercise and Health Sciences, University of Taipei, Taipei City, TAIWAN
| | - HSING-YU KANG
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei City, TAIWAN
| | - KAZUNORI NOSAKA
- Centre for Human Performance, School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, AUSTRALIA
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Abazović E, Kovačević E, Nakić J, Peharec S, Paravlic AH. The effectiveness of unilateral isokinetic resistance training on cross-education is independent of contraction velocity: a case of female dorsiflexors and plantar flexors. Int J Rehabil Res 2023; 46:199-204. [PMID: 37068009 DOI: 10.1097/mrr.0000000000000580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/18/2023]
Abstract
The large body of published literature has shown that the effects of strength training can transfer from trained to untrained homologous limb muscles after unilateral training. These effects on strength have been shown to be very specific to the type and speed of training contraction. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of a 4-week unilateral slow and fast velocity isokinetic concentric training, to compare the effects, and thus investigate whether these effects are speed-specific. Forty-four healthy female students allocated to slow training, fast training, or control performed 12 isokinetic concentric-concentric plantar/dorsal flexors training sessions (3 × 4 weeks) using their nondominant leg. Participants in the two experimental groups showed statistically significant gains in strength in both the trained (ranging from 8 to 41%) and untrained leg (5-26%), thus showing cross-education on strength effects. The present study demonstrated that 4 weeks (12 training sessions) of unilateral isokinetic resistance training in the concentric mode improved the strength of contralateral, untrained homologous muscles to the same extent, regardless of the contraction velocity used in females. Furthermore, the amount of concentric overload (50% more than during 60°/s) did not appear to affect the increase in strength gains. Therefore, practitioners are encouraged to use both training speeds when strength gains in the contralateral leg are the primary goal. If the training time is limited, however, training with a higher contraction speed is recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ensar Abazović
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Institute of Sport University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Erol Kovačević
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Institute of Sport University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Josipa Nakić
- Department of Kinesiology of Sport, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb
| | - Stanislav Peharec
- University of Juraj Dobrila, Faculty of Medicine, Pula
- University of Rijeka, Faculty of Health Studies, Rijeka
- Polyclinic of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Pula, Croatia
| | - Armin H Paravlic
- Department of Sports Medicine, Faculty of Sport, Institute of Kinesiology, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana
- Science and Research Centre Koper, Institute for Kinesiology Research, Koper
- Faculty of Sports Studies, Incubator of Kinanthropology Research, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia
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Chen TCC, Kang HY, Tseng WC, Lin SC, Chan CW, Chen HL, Chou TY, Wang HH, Lau WY, Nosaka K. Muscle damage induced by maximal eccentric exercise of the elbow flexors after 3-week immobilization. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2023; 33:382-392. [PMID: 36427271 DOI: 10.1111/sms.14279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Revised: 11/06/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The present study investigated the effects of a 3-week immobilization (IM) on muscle damage induced by maximal eccentric exercise (MaxEC) to test the hypothesis that the IM would make muscles prone to muscle damage. Young healthy sedentary men were pseudo-randomly assigned to IM or control group (n = 12/group). Non-dominant arms of the IM group participants were immobilized at 90° elbow flexion by a cast for 21 days. All participants performed MaxEC consisting of five sets of six elbow flexor contractions by lowering a dumbbell set at 100% of pre-exercise maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVC) strength of the non-dominant arm. This was performed at 2 days after the cast removal for the IM group. MVC torque, range of motion (ROM), muscle thickness (MT), muscle hardness, position sense (PS), and joint reaction angle (JRA) of the elbow flexors were measured at baseline, post-immobilization, and before, immediately after, and one to 5 days after MaxEC. The IM decreased MVC torque (-17 ± 2%), ROM (-2 ± 1%), MT (-7 ± 3%), and JRA (-12 ± 6%), and increased in muscle hardness (20 ± 6%) and PS (11 ± 2%) (p < 0.05). Changes in MVC (e.g., 2 days: -40 ± 5 vs. -30 ± 9%), ROM (2 days: -11 ± 2 vs. -9 ± 3%), muscle soreness (peak: 63 ± 22 vs. 48 ± 14 mm), plasma CK activity (peak: 7820 ± 4011 vs. 4980 ± 1363 IU/L), PS (maximal change: -23 ± 2 vs. -18 ± 3%), and JRA (maximal change: -37 ± 4 vs. -26 ± 3%) after MaxEC were greater (p < 0.05) for the IM than control group. These results supported the hypothesis and showed that the IM made the muscles more vulnerable to muscle damage induced by eccentric exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trevor Chung-Ching Chen
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hsing-Yu Kang
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Chin Tseng
- Department of Physical Education, University of Taipei, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Che Lin
- Department of Physical Education, National Pingtung University, Pingtung, Taiwan
| | - Chuan-Wei Chan
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hsin-Lian Chen
- Department of Physical Education, Health and Recreation, National Chiayi University, Chiayi, Taiwan
| | - Tai-Ying Chou
- Department of Athletic Performance, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hung-Hao Wang
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wing Yin Lau
- Centre for Human Performance, School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia
| | - Kazunori Nosaka
- Centre for Human Performance, School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia
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van der Groen O, Latella C, Nosaka K, Edwards D, Teo WP, Taylor JL. Corticospinal and intracortical responses from both motor cortices following unilateral concentric versus eccentric contractions. Eur J Neurosci 2023; 57:619-632. [PMID: 36512398 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.15897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 12/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Cross-education is the phenomenon where training of one limb can cause neuromuscular adaptations in the opposite untrained limb. This effect has been reported to be greater after eccentric (ECC) than concentric (CON) strength training; however, the underpinning neurophysiological mechanisms remain unclear. Thus, we compared responses to transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) in both motor cortices following single sessions of unilateral ECC and CON exercise of the elbow flexors. Fourteen healthy adults performed three sets of 10 ECC and CON right elbow flexor contractions at 75% of respective maximum on separate days. Elbow flexor maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) torques were measured before and after exercise, and responses to single- and paired-pulse TMS were recorded from the non-exercised left and exercised right biceps brachii. Pre-exercise and post-exercise responses for ECC and CON were compared by repeated measures analyses of variance (ANOVAs). MVIC torque of the exercised arm decreased (p < 0.01) after CON (-30 ± 14%) and ECC (-39 ± 13%) similarly. For the non-exercised left biceps brachii, resting motor threshold (RMT) decreased after CON only (-4.2 ± 3.9% of maximum stimulator output [MSO], p < 0.01), and intracortical facilitation (ICF) decreased (-15.2 ± 20.0%, p = 0.038) after ECC only. For the exercised right biceps, RMT increased after ECC (8.6 ± 6.2% MSO, p = 0.014) but not after CON (6.4 ± 8.1% MSO, p = 0.066). Thus, unilateral ECC and CON elbow flexor exercise modulated excitability differently for the non-exercised hemisphere. These findings suggest that responses after a single bout of exercise may not reflect longer term adaptations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Onno van der Groen
- Neurorehabilitation and Robotics Laboratory, School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Australia.,Exercise Medicine Research Institute, School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Christopher Latella
- School of Medical and Health Sciences, Centre for Human Performance, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Australia.,Neurophysiology Research Laboratory, School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Australia
| | - Kazunori Nosaka
- Exercise Medicine Research Institute, School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Western Australia, Australia.,School of Medical and Health Sciences, Centre for Human Performance, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Australia
| | - Dylan Edwards
- Neurorehabilitation and Robotics Laboratory, School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Australia.,Exercise Medicine Research Institute, School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Western Australia, Australia.,Moss Rehabilitation Research Institute, Elkins Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Wei-Peng Teo
- Physical Education and Sports Science Academic Group, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Janet L Taylor
- School of Medical and Health Sciences, Centre for Human Performance, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Australia.,Neurophysiology Research Laboratory, School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Australia.,Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, Australia
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10
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Presland JD, Tofari PJ, Timmins RG, Kidgell DJ, Opar DA. Reliability of corticospinal excitability and intracortical inhibition in biceps femoris during different contraction modes. Eur J Neurosci 2023; 57:91-105. [PMID: 36382424 PMCID: PMC10107877 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.15868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Revised: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to determine the test-retest reliability of a range of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) outcomes in the biceps femoris during isometric, eccentric and concentric contractions. Corticospinal excitability (active motor threshold 120% [AMT120%] and area under recruitment curve [AURC]), short- and long-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI and LICI) and intracortical facilitation (ICF) were assessed from the biceps femoris in 10 participants (age 26.3 ± 6.0 years; height 180.2 ± 6.6 cm, body mass 77.2 ± 8.0 kg) in three sessions. Single- and paired-pulse stimuli were delivered under low-level muscle activity (5% ± 2% of maximal isometric root mean squared surface electromyography [rmsEMG]) during isometric, concentric and eccentric contractions. Participants were provided visual feedback on their levels of rmsEMG during all contractions. Single-pulse outcomes measured during isometric contractions (AURC, AMT110%, AMT120%, AMT130%, AMT150%, AMT170%) demonstrated fair to excellent reliability (ICC range, .51 to .92; CV%, 21% to 37%), whereas SICI, LICI and ICF demonstrated good to excellent reliability (ICC range, .62 to .80; CV%, 19 to 42%). Single-pulse outcomes measured during concentric contractions demonstrated excellent reliability (ICC range, .75 to .96; CV%, 15% to 34%), whereas SICI, LICI and ICF demonstrated good to excellent reliability (ICC range, .65 to .76; CV%, 16% to 71%). Single-pulse outcomes during eccentric contractions demonstrated fair to excellent reliability (ICC range, .56 to .96; CV%, 16% to 41%), whereas SICI, LICI and ICF demonstrated good to excellent (ICC range, .67 to .86; CV%, 20% to 42%). This study found that both single- and paired-pulse TMS outcomes can be measured from the biceps femoris muscle across all contraction modes with fair to excellent reliability. However, coefficient of variation values were typically greater than the smallest worthwhile change which may make tracking physiological changes in these variables difficult without moderate to large effect sizes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel D Presland
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Paul J Tofari
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Sports Performance, Recovery, Injury & New Technologies (SPRINT) Research Centre, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ryan G Timmins
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Sports Performance, Recovery, Injury & New Technologies (SPRINT) Research Centre, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Dawson J Kidgell
- School of Primary and Allied Health Care, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - David A Opar
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Sports Performance, Recovery, Injury & New Technologies (SPRINT) Research Centre, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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11
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Siddique U, Frazer AK, Avela J, Walker S, Ahtiainen JP, Howatson G, Tallent J, Kidgell DJ. Determining the cortical, spinal and muscular adaptations to strength-training in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ageing Res Rev 2022; 82:101746. [PMID: 36223874 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2022.101746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Revised: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
There are observable decreases in muscle strength as a result of ageing that occur from the age of 40, which are thought to occur as a result of changes within the neuromuscular system. Strength-training in older adults is a suitable intervention that may counteract the age-related loss in force production. The neuromuscular adaptations (i.e., cortical, spinal and muscular) to strength-training in older adults are largely equivocal and a systematic review with meta-analysis will serve to clarify the present circumstances regarding the benefits of strength-training in older adults. 20 studies entered the meta-analysis and were analysed using a random-effects model. A best evidence synthesis that included 36 studies was performed for variables that had insufficient data for meta-analysis. One study entered both. There was strong evidence that strength-training increases maximal force production, rate of force development and muscle activation in older adults. There was limited evidence for strength-training to improve voluntary-activation, the volitional-wave and spinal excitability, but strong evidence for increased muscle mass. The findings suggest that strength-training performed between 2 and 12 weeks increases strength, rate of force development and muscle activation, which likely improves motoneurone excitability by increased motor unit recruitment and improved discharge rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ummatul Siddique
- Monash Exercise Neuroplasticity Research Unit, Department of Physiotherapy, School of Primary and Allied Health Care, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Science, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Ashlyn K Frazer
- Monash Exercise Neuroplasticity Research Unit, Department of Physiotherapy, School of Primary and Allied Health Care, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Science, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Janne Avela
- NeuroMuscular Research Center, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Simon Walker
- NeuroMuscular Research Center, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Juha P Ahtiainen
- NeuroMuscular Research Center, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Glyn Howatson
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Northumbria University, Newcastle, UK; Water Research Group, North West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Jamie Tallent
- Monash Exercise Neuroplasticity Research Unit, Department of Physiotherapy, School of Primary and Allied Health Care, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Science, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia; School of Sport, Rehabilitation and Exercise Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, UK
| | - Dawson J Kidgell
- Monash Exercise Neuroplasticity Research Unit, Department of Physiotherapy, School of Primary and Allied Health Care, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Science, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia.
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12
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Bowen W, Frazer AK, Tallent J, Pearce AJ, Kidgell DJ. Unilateral Strength Training Imparts a Cross-Education Effect in Unilateral Knee Osteoarthritis Patients. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol 2022; 7:jfmk7040077. [PMID: 36278738 PMCID: PMC9589957 DOI: 10.3390/jfmk7040077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Revised: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Worldwide, 86 million individuals over the age of 20 were diagnosed with knee osteoarthritis (KOA) in 2020. Hallmark features of KOA are the loss in knee extensor strength, increasing knee pain severity, and deficits in functional performance. There is a critical need for the investigation into potential cost-effective therapeutic interventions in the treatment of KOA. A potential therapeutic option is the cross-education phenomenon. Methods: This was a non-blinded randomized control trial, with a 4-week intervention, with a pre, post and follow-up assessment (3 months post intervention). Outcome measures of isometric knee extensor strength, rectus femoris muscle thickness and neuromuscular activation were assessed at all-time points. Results: Compared to age-matched KOA controls, 4 weeks of unilateral strength training in end-stage KOA patients increased strength of the untrained affected KOA limb by 20% (p < 0.05) and reduced bilateral hamstring co-activation in the KOA intervention group compared to the KOA control group (p < 0.05). Conclusions: A 4-week-long knee extensor strength training intervention of the contralateral limb in a cohort with diagnosed unilateral KOA resulted in significant improvements to knee extensor strength and improved neuromuscular function of the KOA limb. Importantly, these results were maintained for 3 months following the intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Warren Bowen
- School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University, Melbourne 3125, Australia
- College of Science, Health and Engineering, La Trobe University, Melbourne 3086, Australia
| | - Ashlyn K. Frazer
- Monash Exercise Neuroplasticity Research Unit, Department of Physiotherapy, Monash University, Melbourne 3800, Australia
| | - Jamie Tallent
- Monash Exercise Neuroplasticity Research Unit, Department of Physiotherapy, Monash University, Melbourne 3800, Australia
- School of Sport, Rehabilitation and Exercise Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester CO4 3SQ, UK
| | - Alan J. Pearce
- College of Science, Health and Engineering, La Trobe University, Melbourne 3086, Australia
| | - Dawson J. Kidgell
- Monash Exercise Neuroplasticity Research Unit, Department of Physiotherapy, Monash University, Melbourne 3800, Australia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +61-3-9904-4119
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13
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Coratella G, Galas A, Campa F, Pedrinolla A, Schena F, Venturelli M. The Eccentric Phase in Unilateral Resistance Training Enhances and Preserves the Contralateral Knee Extensors Strength Gains After Detraining in Women: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Front Physiol 2022; 13:788473. [PMID: 35309062 PMCID: PMC8928196 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.788473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The current randomized controlled study investigated whether or not the inclusion of the eccentric phase in resistance training favors the contralateral strength gains after different unilateral protocols, and whether such gains are retained after detraining. Sixty healthy women were randomly assigned to a unilateral concentric-only (CONC), eccentric-only (ECC), concentric–eccentric (TRAD) volume-equated knee extension training or control group (CON). The participants trained 2 days/week for 8 weeks and then did not train for further 8 weeks. Knee extensors isokinetic concentric, eccentric, and isometric peak torque and vastus lateralis muscle thickness were assessed in the contralateral limb at baseline, post-training, and post-detraining. At post-training, concentric peak torque increased in CONC [+9.2%, 95%CI (+6.2/+12.3), p < 0.001, ES: 0.70, 95%CI (0.01/1.39)], ECC [+11.0% (+7.7/+14.2), p < 0.001: ES: 0.66(0.09/1.23)] and TRAD [+8.5%(+5.7/+11.6), p < 0.001, ES: 0.50(0.02/0.98)]. Eccentric peak torque increased in ECC in ECC [+15.0%(+11.4/+20.7), p < 0.001, ES: 0.91(0.14/1.63)] and TRAD [+5.5%(+0.3/10.7), p = 0.013, ES: 0.50(0.05/0.95)]. Isometric peak torque increased in ECC [+11.3(+5.8/16.8), p < 0.001, ES: 0.52(0.10/0.94)] and TRAD [+8.6%(+3.4/+13.7), p < 0.001, ES: 0.55(0.14/0.96)]. No change in eccentric and isometric peak torque occurred in CONC (p > 0.05). Muscle thickness did not change in any group (p > 0.05). At post-detraining, all groups preserved the contralateral strength gains observed at post-training (p < 0.05). The findings showed that ECC and TRAD increased contralateral knee extensors strength in concentric, eccentric, and isometric modality, while CONC only increased concentric strength. The eccentric phase appears to amplify the cross-education effect, permitting a transfer in strength gaining toward multiple testing modalities. Both eccentric-based and traditional eccentric–concentric resistance protocols are recommended to increase the contralateral retention in strength gains after a detraining period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Coratella
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
- *Correspondence: Giuseppe Coratella,
| | - Annalisa Galas
- Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Francesco Campa
- Department for Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, Rimini, Italy
| | - Anna Pedrinolla
- Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Federico Schena
- Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
- CeRISM Research Center, University of Verona, Rovereto, Italy
| | - Massimo Venturelli
- Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
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14
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Cuenca-Martínez F, Angulo-Díaz-Parreño S, Feijóo-Rubio X, Fernández-Solís MM, León-Hernández JV, LA Touche R, Suso-Martí L. Motor effects of movement representation techniques and cross-education: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Phys Rehabil Med 2022; 58:94-107. [PMID: 34105921 PMCID: PMC9987463 DOI: 10.23736/s1973-9087.21.06893-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The objective was to assess the impact of movement representation techniques (MRT) through motor imagery (MI), action observation (AO) and visual mirror feedback (VMF) and cross-education training (CE) on strength, range of motion (ROM), speed, functional state and balance during experimental immobilization processes in healthy individuals, in patients with injuries that did not require surgery and in those with surgical processes that did or did not require immobilization. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL and Google Scholar were searched. Thirteen meta-analyses were conducted. EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS Regarding the immobilized participants, in the healthy individuals, MI showed significant results regarding maintenance of strength and ROM, with low-quality evidence. Regarding the process with no immobilization, VMF and MI techniques showed significant changes in maintaining ROM in patients with injury without surgery, with very low-quality evidence. Results had shown that MI demonstrated significantly higher maintenance of strength and speed in patients undergoing surgery, with low-quality evidence. No significant results were found in ROM. Low-quality evidence showed better results in AO plus usual care compared with usual treatment in isolation with respect to maintenance of functional state and balance. CE training demonstrated maintenance of strength in patients undergoing surgery, with moderate evidence; however, not in healthy experimentally immobilized individuals. VMF did not show significant results in maintaining ROM after surgery without immobilization, nor did MI in maintaining strength after surgery and immobilization. CONCLUSIONS MRT and CE training have been shown to have a significant impact on the improvement of various motor variables and on physical maintenance in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ferran Cuenca-Martínez
- Departamento de Fisioterapia, Centro Superior de Estudios Universitarios La Salle, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.,Motion in Brains Research Group, Institute of Neuroscience and Sciences of the Movement (INCIMOV), La Salle Higher Center for University Studies, Autonomous University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Santiago Angulo-Díaz-Parreño
- Motion in Brains Research Group, Institute of Neuroscience and Sciences of the Movement (INCIMOV), La Salle Higher Center for University Studies, Autonomous University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain.,Faculty of Medicine, CEU San Pablo University, Madrid, Spain
| | - Xosé Feijóo-Rubio
- Departamento de Fisioterapia, Centro Superior de Estudios Universitarios La Salle, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Marta M Fernández-Solís
- Departamento de Fisioterapia, Centro Superior de Estudios Universitarios La Salle, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - José V León-Hernández
- Departamento de Fisioterapia, Centro Superior de Estudios Universitarios La Salle, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.,Motion in Brains Research Group, Institute of Neuroscience and Sciences of the Movement (INCIMOV), La Salle Higher Center for University Studies, Autonomous University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Roy LA Touche
- Departamento de Fisioterapia, Centro Superior de Estudios Universitarios La Salle, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain - .,Motion in Brains Research Group, Institute of Neuroscience and Sciences of the Movement (INCIMOV), La Salle Higher Center for University Studies, Autonomous University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain.,Institute of Neurosciences and Craniofacial Pain (INDCRAN), Madrid, Spain
| | - Luis Suso-Martí
- Motion in Brains Research Group, Institute of Neuroscience and Sciences of the Movement (INCIMOV), La Salle Higher Center for University Studies, Autonomous University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain.,Department of Physiotherapy, CEU Cardenal Herrera University, CEU Universities, Valencia, Spain
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15
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Van Pelt DW, Lawrence MM, Miller BF, Butterfield TA, Dupont-Versteegden EE. Massage as a Mechanotherapy for Skeletal Muscle. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 2021; 49:107-114. [PMID: 33720912 PMCID: PMC8320327 DOI: 10.1249/jes.0000000000000244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Massage is anecdotally associated with many health benefits, but physiological and clinically relevant mechanisms recently have begun to be investigated in a controlled manner. Herein, we describe research supporting our hypothesis that massage can be used as a mechanotherapy imparting biologically relevant adaptations in skeletal muscle and improving muscle properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas W Van Pelt
- Department of Physical Therapy and Center for Muscle Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY
| | - Marcus M Lawrence
- Aging and Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK
| | - Benjamin F Miller
- Aging and Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK
| | - Timothy A Butterfield
- Department of Athletic Training and Clinical Nutrition and Center for Muscle Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY
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16
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Wohl TR, Criss CR, Grooms DR. Visual Perturbation to Enhance Return to Sport Rehabilitation after Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury: A Clinical Commentary. Int J Sports Phys Ther 2021; 16:552-564. [PMID: 33842051 PMCID: PMC8016421 DOI: 10.26603/001c.21251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tears are common traumatic knee injuries causing joint instability, quadriceps muscle weakness and impaired motor coordination. The neuromuscular consequences of injury are not limited to the joint and surrounding musculature, but may modulate central nervous system reorganization. Neuroimaging data suggest patients with ACL injuries may require greater levels of visual-motor and neurocognitive processing activity to sustain lower limb control relative to healthy matched counterparts. Therapy currently fails to adequately address these nuanced consequences of ACL injury, which likely contributes to impaired neuromuscular control when visually or cognitively challenged and high rates of re-injury. This gap in rehabilitation may be filled by visual perturbation training, which may reweight sensory neural processing toward proprioception and reduce the dependency on vision to perform lower extremity motor tasks and/or increase visuomotor processing efficiency. This clinical commentary details a novel approach to supplement the current standard of care for ACL injury by incorporating stroboscopic glasses with key motor learning principles customized to target visual and cognitive dependence for motor control after ACL injury. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE 5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy R Wohl
- Honors Tutorial College, Ohio University, Athens, OH, USA; Division of Physical Therapy, School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Cody R Criss
- Ohio Musculoskeletal & Neurological Institute, Ohio University, Grover Center, Athens, OH, USA; Translational Biomedical Sciences, Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, Athens, OH, USA
| | - Dustin R Grooms
- Ohio Musculoskeletal & Neurological Institute, Ohio University, Grover Center, Athens, OH, USA; Division of Athletic Training, School of Applied Health Sciences and Wellness, College of Health Sciences and Professions, Ohio University, Grover Center, Athens, OH, USA; Division of Physical Therapy, School of Rehabilitation and Communication Sciences, College of Health Sciences and Professions, Ohio University, Grover Center, Athens, OH, USA
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17
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Yadav G, Mutha PK. Symmetric interlimb transfer of newly acquired skilled movements. J Neurophysiol 2020; 124:1364-1376. [PMID: 32902352 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00777.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, we aimed to examine features of interlimb generalization or "transfer" of newly acquired motor skills, with a broader goal of better understanding the mechanisms mediating skill learning. Right-handed participants (n = 36) learned a motor task that required them to make very rapid but accurate reaches to one of eight randomly presented targets, thus bettering the typical speed-accuracy tradeoff. Subjects were divided into an "RL" group that first trained with the right arm and was then tested on the left and an "LR" group that trained with the left arm and was subsequently tested on the right. We found significant interlimb transfer in both groups. Remarkably, we also observed that participants learned faster with their left arm compared with the right. We hypothesized that this could be due to a previously suggested left arm/right hemisphere advantage for movements under variable task conditions. To corroborate this, we recruited two additional groups of participants (n = 22) that practiced the same task under a single target condition. This removal of task level variability eliminated learning rate differences between the arms, yet interlimb transfer remained robust and symmetric, as in the first experiment. Additionally, the strategy used to reduce errors during learning, albeit heterogeneous across subjects particularly in our second experiment, was adopted by the untrained arm. These findings may be best explained as the outcome of the operation of cognitive strategies during the early stages of motor skill learning.NEW & NOTEWORTHY How newly acquired motor skills generalize across effectors is not well understood. Here, we show that newly learned skilled actions transfer symmetrically across the arms and that task-level variability influences learning rate but not transfer magnitude or direction. Interestingly, strategies developed during learning with one arm transfer to the untrained arm. This likely reflects the outcome of learning driven by cognitive mechanisms during the initial stages of motor skill acquisition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Goldy Yadav
- Center for Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
| | - Pratik K Mutha
- Center for Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India.,Department of Biological Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
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18
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Valdes O, Ramirez C, Perez F, Garcia-Vicencio S, Nosaka K, Penailillo L. Contralateral effects of eccentric resistance training on immobilized arm. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2020; 31:76-90. [PMID: 32897568 DOI: 10.1111/sms.13821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Revised: 08/27/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
This study compared the effects of contralateral eccentric-only (ECC) and concentric-/eccentric-coupled resistance training (CON-ECC) of the elbow flexors on immobilized arm. Thirty healthy participants (18-34 y) were randomly allocated to immobilization only (CTRL; n = 10), immobilization and ECC (n = 10), or immobilization and CON-ECC group (n = 10). The non-dominant arms of all participants were immobilized (8 h·day-1 ) for 4 weeks, during which ECC and CON-ECC were performed by the dominant (non-immobilized) arm 3 times a week (3-6 sets of 10 repetitions per session) with an 80%-120% and 60%-90% of one concentric repetition maximum (1-RM) load, respectively, matching the total training volume. Arm circumference, 1-RM and maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) strength, biceps brachii surface electromyogram amplitude (sEMGRMS ), rate of force development (RFD), and joint position sense (JPS) were measured for both arms before and after immobilization. CTRL showed decreases (P < .05) in MVIC (-21.7%), sEMGRMS (-35.2%), RFD (-26.0%), 1-RM (-14.4%), JPS (-87.4%), and arm circumference (-5.1%) of the immobilized arm. These deficits were attenuated or eliminated by ECC and CON-ECC, with greater effect sizes for ECC than CON-ECC in MVIC (0.29: +12.1%, vs -0.18: -0.1%) and sEMGRMS (0.31:17.5% vs -0.15: -5.9%). For the trained arm, ECC showed greater effect size for MVIC than CON-ECC (0.47 vs 0.29), and increased arm circumference (+2.9%), sEMGRMS (+77.9%), and RDF (+31.8%) greater (P < .05) than CON-ECC (+0.6%, +15.1%, and + 15.8%, respectively). The eccentric-only resistance training of the contralateral arm was more effective to counteract the negative immobilization effects than the concentric-eccentric training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omar Valdes
- Exercise Science Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Finis Terrae, Santiago, Chile.,Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad de las Américas, Santiago, Chile
| | - Carlos Ramirez
- Exercise Science Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Finis Terrae, Santiago, Chile
| | - Felipe Perez
- Exercise Science Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Finis Terrae, Santiago, Chile
| | - Sebastian Garcia-Vicencio
- Physiology of Exercise and Activities in Extreme Conditions Unit, Operational Environments Department, French Armed Forces Biomedical Research Institute (IRBA), Brétigny sur Orge, France
| | - Kazunori Nosaka
- Centre for Exercise and Sports Science Research, School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia
| | - Luis Penailillo
- Exercise Science Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Finis Terrae, Santiago, Chile
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19
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Muscle strength loss following immobilisation has been predominantly attributed to rapid muscle atrophy. However, this cannot fully explain the magnitude of muscle strength loss, so changes in neuromuscular function (NMF) may be involved. OBJECTIVES We systematically reviewed literature that quantified changes in muscle strength, size and NMF following periods of limb immobilisation in vivo in humans. METHODS Studies were identified following systematic searches, assessed for inclusion, data extracted and quality appraised by two reviewers. Data were tabulated and reported narratively. RESULTS Forty eligible studies were included, 22 immobilised lower and 18 immobilised upper limbs. Limb immobilisation ranged from 12 h to 56 days. Isometric muscle strength and muscle size declined following immobilisation; however, change magnitude was greater for strength than size. Evoked resting twitch force decreased for lower but increased for upper limbs. Rate of force development either remained unchanged or slowed for lower and typically slowed for upper limbs. Twitch relaxation rate slowed for both lower and upper limbs. Central motor drive typically decreased for both locations, while electromyography amplitude during maximum voluntary contractions decreased for the lower and presented mixed findings for the upper limbs. Trends imply faster rates of NMF loss relative to size earlier in immobilisation periods for all outcomes. CONCLUSIONS Limb immobilisation results in non-uniform loss of isometric muscle strength, size and NMF over time. Different outcomes between upper and lower limbs could be attributed to higher degrees of central neural control of upper limb musculature. Future research should focus on muscle function losses and mechanisms following acute immobilisation. REGISTRATION PROSPERO reference: CRD42016033692.
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20
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Tracking the corticospinal responses to strength training. Eur J Appl Physiol 2020; 120:783-798. [DOI: 10.1007/s00421-020-04316-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2019] [Accepted: 02/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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21
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Bell ZW, Wong V, Spitz RW, Chatakondi RN, Viana R, Abe T, Loenneke JP. The contraction history of the muscle and strength change: lessons learned from unilateral training models. Physiol Meas 2020; 41:01TR01. [PMID: 31652423 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6579/ab516c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Participation in resistance exercise is encouraged throughout the lifetime, offering such benefits as improved strength and muscle mass accretion. Considerable research has been completed on this topic within the past several decades, with the current narrative dictating that increased muscle size yields further increases in muscle strength. However, there remain unanswered questions relating to the observation that certain training interventions yield only one specific adaptation (strength or size). Studies investigating resistance training often include either bilateral or unilateral exercise programs. Unilateral exercise programs are often used as they allow for comparison between two separate training interventions within the same individual. This is viewed as an advantage, relating to statistical power, but a limitation insofar as one intervention could be confounded by the intervention within the opposing limb. For example, when only one limb is trained both limbs often get stronger (albeit to differing magnitudes), termed the cross-education effect. However, we propose that when both limbs are trained that the cross-education effect may not occur and that the adaptations produced are reflective of the contraction history of the muscle. Herein, we discuss ways to test the idea that strength change may be dictated by the contraction history of the muscle. If each limb responds only to the contraction history within each limb (as opposed to the opposite limb), then this would have immediate ramifications for research design. Furthermore, this would certainly be of importance among injured populations undergoing rehabilitation, seeking to find the most efficacious exercise regimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary W Bell
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, and Recreation Management, Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, United States of America
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22
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Siddique U, Rahman S, Frazer AK, Pearce AJ, Howatson G, Kidgell DJ. Determining the Sites of Neural Adaptations to Resistance Training: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Sports Med 2020; 50:1107-1128. [DOI: 10.1007/s40279-020-01258-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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23
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Chen Y, Wang P, Bai Y, Wang Y. Effects of mirror training on motor performance in healthy individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med 2019; 5:e000590. [PMID: 31908833 PMCID: PMC6937065 DOI: 10.1136/bmjsem-2019-000590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Mirror training (MTr) is a rehabilitation technique for patients with neurological diseases. There is no consensus on its effects on motor function in healthy individuals. This systematic review and meta-analysis considers the effects of MTr on motor function in healthy individuals. Design This is a systematic review and meta-analysis. Data sources We searched six databases for studies assessing the effects of MTr on motor function in healthy individuals, published between January 1995 and December 2018. The Cochrane risk of bias was used to assess the quality of the studies. A meta-analysis was conducted with narrative synthesis. Eligibility criteria for selecting studies English-language randomised controlled trials reporting the behavioural results in healthy individuals were included. Results Fourteen randomised controlled trials involving 538 healthy individuals were eligible. Two short-term studies showed MTr was inferior to passive vision pattern (standardised mean difference 0.57 (95% CI 0.06 to 1.08), I2=0%, p=0.03). The methods varied and there is limited evidence supporting the effectiveness of MTr compared with three alternative training patterns, with insufficient evidence to support analyses of age, skill level or hand dominance. Conclusion The limited evidence that MTr affects motor performance in healthy individuals is weak and inconsistent among studies. It is unclear whether the effects of MTr on motor performance are more pronounced than the direct vision pattern, passive vision pattern or action observation. Further studies are needed to explore the short-term and long-term benefits of MTr and its effects on motor learning in healthy individuals. PROSPERO registration number CRD42019128881.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinglun Chen
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Pu Wang
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Medical School Affiliated Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Yulong Bai
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuyuan Wang
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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24
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Siddique U, Rahman S, Frazer AK, Howatson G, Kidgell DJ. RETRACTED ARTICLE: Determining the Sites of Neural Adaptations to Resistance Training: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Med 2019; 49:1809. [PMID: 31359349 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-019-01152-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ummatul Siddique
- Department of Neurology, Institute of Neurosciences, Kolkata, India
| | - Simin Rahman
- Department of Neurology, Institute of Neurosciences, Kolkata, India
| | - Ashlyn K Frazer
- Department of Physiotherapy, School of Primary and Allied Health Care, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Science, Monash University, PO Box 527, Frankston, VIC, 3199, Australia
| | - Glyn Howatson
- Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK
- Water Research Group, School of Environmental Sciences and Development, Northwest University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Dawson J Kidgell
- Department of Physiotherapy, School of Primary and Allied Health Care, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Science, Monash University, PO Box 527, Frankston, VIC, 3199, Australia.
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25
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Jin JN, Wang X, Li Y, Wang H, Liu ZP, Yin T. rTMS combined with motor training changed the inter-hemispheric lateralization. Exp Brain Res 2019; 237:2735-2746. [PMID: 31435692 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-019-05621-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2019] [Accepted: 08/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation combined with motor training (rTMS-MT) can be an effective method for enhancing motor function. However, the effects of rTMS-MT on inter-hemispheric lateralization remain unclear. Nineteen healthy volunteers were recruited. The volunteers were randomized to receive 2 weeks of rTMS-MT or MT to improve the motor function of the nondominant hand. Hand dexterity was tested by the Nine-Hole Peg Test. Resting motor threshold (RMT), motor evoked potentials (MEP) and electroencephalography (EEG) in the resting state with eyes closed were recorded, to calculate inter-hemispheric lateralization before and after rTMS-MT or MT. rTMS-MT and MT improved the dexterity and MEP amplitude of the nondominant hand. Furthermore, there were significant changes in the lateralization of not only power spectral density, but also information transmission efficiency between regions following rTMS-MT, especially between the central cortices of both hemispheres. However, although the lateralization change of the power spectral density between the central cortices was observed following MT, there was no such change for information transmission efficiency between any cortices. These results suggested that rTMS-MT could modulate inter-hemispheric lateralization. Changes in inter-hemispheric lateralization might be an important neural mechanism by which rTMS-MT improves motor function. These results could be helpful for understanding the brain mechanism of rTMS-MT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing-Na Jin
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin, 300192, China
| | - Xin Wang
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin, 300192, China
| | - Ying Li
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin, 300192, China
| | - He Wang
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin, 300192, China
| | - Zhi-Peng Liu
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin, 300192, China.
| | - Tao Yin
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin, 300192, China.
- Neuroscience Center, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100730, China.
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26
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Frazer AK, Howatson G, Ahtiainen JP, Avela J, Rantalainen T, Kidgell DJ. Priming the Motor Cortex With Anodal Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Affects the Acute Inhibitory Corticospinal Responses to Strength Training. J Strength Cond Res 2019; 33:307-317. [PMID: 30688872 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000002959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Frazer, AK, Howatson, G, Ahtiainen, JP, Avela, J, Rantalainen, T, and Kidgell, DJ. Priming the motor cortex with anodal transcranial direct current stimulation affects the acute inhibitory corticospinal responses to strength training. J Strength Cond Res 33(2): 307-317, 2019-Synaptic plasticity in the motor cortex (M1) is associated with strength training (ST) and can be modified by transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). The M1 responses to ST increase when anodal tDCS is applied during training due to gating. An additional approach to improve the M1 responses to ST, which has not been explored, is to use anodal tDCS to prime the M1 before a bout of ST. We examined the priming effects of anodal tDCS of M1 on the acute corticospinal responses to ST. In a randomized double-blinded cross-over design, changes in isometric strength, corticospinal excitability, and inhibition (assessed as area under the recruitment curve [AURC] using transcranial magnetic stimulation) were analyzed in 13 adults exposed to 20 minutes of anodal tDCS and sham tDCS followed by a ST session of the right elbow flexors. We observed a significant decrease in isometric elbow-flexor strength immediately after training (11-12%; p < 0.05), which was not different between anodal tDCS and sham tDCS. Transcranial magnetic stimulation revealed a 24% increase in AURC for corticospinal excitability after anodal tDCS and ST; this increase was not different between conditions. However, there was a 14% reduction in AURC for corticospinal inhibition when anodal tDCS was applied before ST when compared with sham tDCS and ST (all p < 0.05). Priming anodal tDCS had a limited effect in facilitating corticospinal excitability after an acute bout of ST. Interestingly, the interaction of anodal tDCS and ST seems to affect the excitability of intracortical inhibitory circuits of the M1 through nonhomeostatic mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashlyn K Frazer
- Department of Physiotherapy, School of Primary Health Care, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Glyn Howatson
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom.,Water Research Group, School of Biological Sciences, North West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Juha P Ahtiainen
- Department of Biology and Physical Activity, Neuromuscular Research Center, Biology and Physical Activity, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Janne Avela
- Department of Biology and Physical Activity, Neuromuscular Research Center, Biology and Physical Activity, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Timo Rantalainen
- Department of Biology and Physical Activity, Neuromuscular Research Center, Biology and Physical Activity, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland.,Department of Biology and Physical Activity, Gerontology Research Center, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Dawson J Kidgell
- Department of Physiotherapy, School of Primary Health Care, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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27
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Hendy AM, Ekblom MM, Latella C, Teo WP. Investigating the effects of muscle contraction and conditioning stimulus intensity on short-interval intracortical inhibition. Eur J Neurosci 2019; 50:3133-3140. [PMID: 31199534 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2018] [Revised: 05/14/2019] [Accepted: 05/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
A reduction in short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI) has been shown to accompany acute or chronic resistance exercise; however, little is known about how SICI is modulated under different contraction intensities. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to assess the effect of muscle contraction and conditioning stimulus intensity on the modulation of SICI. Single- and paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation was applied to the primary motor cortex (M1), and motor evoked potentials (MEPs) were recorded from the biceps brachii in 16 adults (10M/6F). A conditioning-test stimulus paradigm (3 ms inter-stimulus intervals) was delivered during 10%, 20%, 40% and 75% of maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC). At each force level, conditioning stimulus intensities of 60%, 70% and 80% of active motor threshold (AMT) were tested. Single-pulse MEPs were expressed as a proportion of the maximal muscle compound action potential, while SICI was quantified as a ratio of the unconditioned MEP. MEP amplitude increased with force output, with the greatest increase at 75% of MVIC. A reduction in SICI was observed from 40% to 75% of MVIC, but not 10%-40% of MVIC. There was no significant interaction between conditioning stimulus intensity and force level. The conditioning stimulus intensity (60%, 70% or 80% of AMT) did not alter the modulation of SICI. SICI was reduced at 75% of MVIC compared with the lower force outputs, and the magnitude of SICI in individual participants at different force outputs was not related. The findings suggest that strong muscle contractions are accompanied by less inhibition, which may have implications for neuroplasticity in exercise interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashlee M Hendy
- School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Maria M Ekblom
- The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences, Stockholm, Sweden.,Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Christopher Latella
- Centre for Exercise and Sports Science Research (CESSR), School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Wei-Peng Teo
- School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
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28
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Zult T, Gokeler A, van Raay JJAM, Brouwer RW, Zijdewind I, Farthing JP, Hortobágyi T. Cross-education does not improve early and late-phase rehabilitation outcomes after ACL reconstruction: a randomized controlled clinical trial. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 2019; 27:478-490. [PMID: 30182287 DOI: 10.1007/s00167-018-5116-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2017] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Limited evidence suggests that cross-education affords clinical benefits in the initial 8 weeks after anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction, but it is unknown if such cross-education effects are reproducible and still present in later phases of rehabilitation. We examined whether cross-education, as an adjuvant to standard therapy, would accelerate the rehabilitation up to 26 weeks after ACL reconstruction by attenuating quadriceps weakness. METHODS ACL-reconstructed patients were randomized into experimental (n = 22) and control groups (n = 21). Both groups received standard care after ACL reconstruction. In addition, the experimental group strength trained the quadriceps of the non-operated leg during weeks 1-12 after surgery (i.e., cross-education). Self-reported knee function was assessed with the Hughston Clinic Knee score as the primary outcome. Secondary outcomes were maximal quadriceps and hamstring strength and single leg hop distance. All outcomes were measured 29 ± 23 days prior to surgery, as a reference, and at 5-week, 12-week, and 26-week post-surgery. RESULTS Both groups scored 12% worse on self-reported knee function 5-week post-surgery (95% CI 7-17) and showed 15% improvement 26-week post-surgery (95% CI - 20 to - 10). No cross-education effect was found. Interestingly, males scored 8-10% worse than females at each time point post-surgery. None of 33 secondary outcomes showed a cross-education effect. At 26-week post-surgery, both legs improved maximal quadriceps (5-14%) and hamstring strength (7-18%), and the non-injured leg improved 2% in hop distance. The ACL recovery was not affected by limb dominance and age. CONCLUSION 26 weeks of standard care improved self-reported knee function and maximal leg strength relative to pre-surgery and adding cross-education did not further accelerate ACL recovery. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE I. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRY NAME AND REGISTRATION This randomized controlled clinical trial is registered at the Dutch trial register ( http://www.trialregister.nl ) under NTR4395.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tjerk Zult
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
- Vision and Eye Research Unit, School of Medicine, Anglia Ruskin University, Young Street 213, Cambridge, CB1 1PT, UK.
| | - Alli Gokeler
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jos J A M van Raay
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Martini Hospital, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Reinoud W Brouwer
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Martini Hospital, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Inge Zijdewind
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | | | - Tibor Hortobágyi
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
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29
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Piper TJ, Brees TN, Helling K. The Turkish Row. Strength Cond J 2018. [DOI: 10.1519/ssc.0000000000000349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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30
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Frazer AK, Pearce AJ, Howatson G, Thomas K, Goodall S, Kidgell DJ. Determining the potential sites of neural adaptation to cross-education: implications for the cross-education of muscle strength. Eur J Appl Physiol 2018; 118:1751-1772. [PMID: 29995227 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-018-3937-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Cross-education describes the strength gain in the opposite, untrained limb following a unilateral strength training program. Since its discovery in 1894, several studies now confirm the existence of cross-education in contexts that involve voluntary dynamic contractions, eccentric contraction, electrical stimulation, whole-body vibration and, more recently, following mirror feedback training. Although many aspects of cross-education have been established, the mediating neural mechanisms remain unclear. Overall, the findings of this review show that the neural adaptations to cross-education of muscle strength most likely represent a continuum of change within the central nervous system that involves both structural and functional changes within cortical motor and non-motor regions. Such changes are likely to be the result of more subtle changes along the entire neuroaxis which include, increased corticospinal excitability, reduced cortical inhibition, reduced interhemispheric inhibition, changes in voluntary activation and new regions of cortical activation. However, there is a need to widen the breadth of research by employing several neurophysiological techniques (together) to better understand the potential mechanisms mediating cross-education. This fundamental step is required in order to better prescribe targeted and effective guidelines for the clinical practice of cross-education. There is a need to determine whether similar cortical responses also occur in clinical populations where, perhaps, the benefits of cross-education could be best observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashlyn K Frazer
- Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, School of Primary and Allied Health Care, Monash University, PO Box 527, Frankston, Melbourne, VIC, 3199, Australia.
| | - Alan J Pearce
- Discipline of Exercise Science, School of Allied Health, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Glyn Howatson
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK.,Water Research Group, School of Biological Sciences, North West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Kevin Thomas
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK
| | - Stuart Goodall
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK
| | - Dawson J Kidgell
- Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, School of Primary and Allied Health Care, Monash University, PO Box 527, Frankston, Melbourne, VIC, 3199, Australia
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31
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Manca A, Hortobágyi T, Rothwell J, Deriu F. Neurophysiological adaptations in the untrained side in conjunction with cross-education of muscle strength: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2018; 124:1502-1518. [DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01016.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We reviewed the evidence from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) focusing on the neurophysiological adaptations in the untrained side associated with cross-education of strength (CE) and pooled data into definite effect estimates for neurophysiological variables assessed in chronic CE studies. Furthermore, scoping directions for future research were provided to enhance the homogeneity and comparability of studies investigating the neural responses to CE. The magnitude of CE was 21.1 ± 18.2% (mean ± SD; P < 0.0001) in 22 RCTs ( n = 467 subjects) that measured at least 1 neurophysiological variable in the untrained side, including the following: electromyography (EMG; 14 studies); motor evoked potential (MEP; 8 studies); short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI), recruitment curve, and M wave (6 studies); cortical silent period (cSP; 5 studies); interhemispheric inhibition, intracortical facilitation (ICF), and H reflex (2 studies); and V wave, short-interval ICF, short-latency afferent inhibition, and long-latency afferent inhibition (1 study). Only EMG, MEP, ICF, cSP, and SICI could be included in the meta-analysis (18 studies, n = 387). EMG ( P = 0.26, n = 235) and MEP amplitude ( P = 0.11, n = 145) did not change in the untrained limb after CE. cSP duration ( P = 0.02, n = 114) and SICI ( P = 0.001, n = 95) decreased in the untrained hemisphere according to body region and type and intensity of training. The magnitude of CE did not correlate with changes in these transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) measures. The design of this meta-analytical study and the lack of correlations prevented the ability to link mechanistically the observed neurophysiological changes to CE. Notwithstanding the limited amount of data available for pooling, the use of TMS to assess the ipsilateral neurophysiological responses to unilateral training still confirms the central neural origin hypothesis of chronic CE induced by strength training. However, how these neural adaptations contribute to CE remains unclear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Manca
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Tibor Hortobágyi
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Centre Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - John Rothwell
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Franca Deriu
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
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32
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Andrushko JW, Gould LA, Farthing JP. Contralateral effects of unilateral training: sparing of muscle strength and size after immobilization. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2018; 43:1131-1139. [PMID: 29800529 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2018-0073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The contralateral effects of unilateral strength training, known as cross-education of strength, date back well over a century. In the last decade, a limited number of studies have emerged demonstrating the preservation or "sparing" effects of cross-education during immobilization. Recently published evidence reveals that the sparing effects of cross-education show muscle site specificity and involve preservation of muscle cross-sectional area. The new research also demonstrates utility of training with eccentric contractions as a potent stimulus to preserve immobilized limb strength across multiple modes of contraction. The cumulative data in nonclinical settings suggest that cross-education can completely abolish expected declines in strength and muscle size in the range of ∼13% and ∼4%, respectively, after 3-4 weeks of immobilization of a healthy arm. The evidence hints towards the possibility that unique mechanisms may be involved in preservation effects of cross-education, as compared with those that lead to functional improvements under normal conditions. Cross-education effects after strength training appear to be larger in clinical settings, but there is still only 1 randomized clinical trial demonstrating the potential utility of cross-education in addition to standard treatment. More work is necessary in both controlled and clinical settings to understand the potential interaction of neural and muscle adaptations involved in the observed sparing effects, but there is growing evidence to advocate for the clinical utility of cross-education.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin W Andrushko
- a College of Kinesiology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B2, Canada
| | - Layla A Gould
- a College of Kinesiology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B2, Canada.,b College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Jonathan P Farthing
- a College of Kinesiology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B2, Canada
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33
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The ipsilateral corticospinal responses to cross-education are dependent upon the motor-training intervention. Exp Brain Res 2018; 236:1331-1346. [PMID: 29511785 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-018-5224-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2018] [Accepted: 03/01/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to identify the ipsilateral corticospinal responses of the contralateral limb following different types of unilateral motor-training. Three groups performing unilateral slow-paced strength training (SPST), non-paced strength training (NPST) or visuomotor skill training (VT) were compared to a control group. It was hypothesised that 4 weeks of unilateral SPST and VT, but not NPST, would increase ipsilateral corticospinal excitability (CSE) and reduce short-interval cortical inhibition (SICI), resulting in greater performance gains of the untrained limb. Tracking error of the untrained limb reduced by 29 and 41% following 2 and 4 weeks of VT. Strength of the untrained limb increased by 8 and 16% following 2 and 4 weeks of SPST and by 6 and 13% following NPST. There was no difference in cross-education of strength or tracking error. For the trained limb, SPST and NPST increased strength (28 and 26%), and VT improved by 47 and 58%. SPST and VT increased ipsilateral CSE by 89 and 71% at 2 weeks. Ipsilateral CSE increased 105 and 81% at 4 weeks following SPST and VT. The NPST group and control group showed no changes at 2 and 4 weeks. SPST and VT reduced ipsilateral SICI by 45 and 47% at 2 weeks; at 4 weeks, SPST and VT reduced SICI by 48 and 38%. The ipsilateral corticospinal responses are determined by the type of motor-training. There were no differences in motor performance between SPST, NPST and VT. The data suggests that the corticospinal responses to cross-education are different and determined by the type of motor-training.
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34
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Andrushko JW, Lanovaz JL, Björkman KM, Kontulainen SA, Farthing JP. Unilateral strength training leads to muscle-specific sparing effects during opposite homologous limb immobilization. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2017; 124:866-876. [PMID: 29357520 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00971.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cross education (CE) occurs after unilateral training whereby performance of the untrained contralateral limb is enhanced. A few studies have shown that CE can preserve or "spare" strength and size of an opposite immobilized limb, but the specificity (i.e., trained homologous muscle and contraction type) of these effects is unknown. The purpose was to investigate specificity of CE "sparing" effects with immobilization. The nondominant forearm of 16 participants was immobilized with a cast, and participants were randomly assigned to a resistance training (eccentric wrist flexion, 3 times/week) or control group for 4 weeks. Pre- and posttesting involved wrist flexors and extensors eccentric, concentric and isometric maximal voluntary contractions (via dynamometer), muscle thickness (via ultrasound), and forearm muscle cross-sectional area (MCSA; via peripheral quantitative computed tomography). Only the training group showed strength preservation across all contractions in the wrist flexors of the immobilized limb (training: -2.4% vs. control: -21.6%; P = 0.04), and increased wrist flexors strength of the nonimmobilized limb (training: 30.8% vs. control: -7.4%; P = 0.04). Immobilized arm MCSA was preserved for the training group only (training: 1.3% vs. control: -2.3%; P = 0.01). Muscle thickness differed between groups for the immobilized (training: 2.8% vs. control: -3.2%; P = 0.01) and nonimmobilized wrist flexors (training: 7.1% vs. control: -3.7%; P = 0.02). Strength preservation was nonspecific to contraction type ( P = 0.69, [Formula: see text] = 0.03) yet specific to the trained flexors muscle. These findings suggest that eccentric training of the nonimmobilized limb can preserve size of the immobilized contralateral homologous muscle and strength across multiple contraction types. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Unilateral strength training preserves strength, muscle thickness, and muscle cross-sectional area in an opposite immobilized limb. The preservation of size and strength was confined to the trained homologous muscle group. However, strength was preserved across multiple contraction types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin W Andrushko
- College of Kinesiology, University of Saskatchewan , Saskatoon, Saskatchewan , Canada
| | - Joel L Lanovaz
- College of Kinesiology, University of Saskatchewan , Saskatoon, Saskatchewan , Canada
| | - Kelsey M Björkman
- College of Kinesiology, University of Saskatchewan , Saskatoon, Saskatchewan , Canada
| | - Saija A Kontulainen
- College of Kinesiology, University of Saskatchewan , Saskatoon, Saskatchewan , Canada
| | - Jonathan P Farthing
- College of Kinesiology, University of Saskatchewan , Saskatoon, Saskatchewan , Canada
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35
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The corticospinal responses of metronome-paced, but not self-paced strength training are similar to motor skill training. Eur J Appl Physiol 2017; 117:2479-2492. [DOI: 10.1007/s00421-017-3736-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2017] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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36
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Kidgell DJ, Bonanno DR, Frazer AK, Howatson G, Pearce AJ. Corticospinal responses following strength training: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Neurosci 2017; 46:2648-2661. [DOI: 10.1111/ejn.13710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2017] [Revised: 08/27/2017] [Accepted: 08/31/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Dawson J. Kidgell
- Department of Physiotherapy; School of Primary and Allied Health Care; Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Science; Monash University; Melbourne Vic. 3199 Australia
| | - Daniel R. Bonanno
- Discipline of Podiatry; School of Allied Health; La Trobe University; Melbourne Vic. Australia
- La Trobe Sport and Exercise Medicine Research Centre; School of Allied Health; La Trobe University; Melbourne Vic. Australia
| | - Ashlyn K. Frazer
- Department of Physiotherapy; School of Primary and Allied Health Care; Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Science; Monash University; Melbourne Vic. 3199 Australia
| | - Glyn Howatson
- Faculty of Health and Life Sciences; Northumbria University; Newcastle-upon-Tyne UK
- Water Research Group; School of Environmental Sciences and Development; Northwest University; Potchefstroom South Africa
| | - Alan J. Pearce
- Discipline of Exercise Science; School of Allied Health; La Trobe University; Melbourne Vic. Australia
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37
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Manca A, Dragone D, Dvir Z, Deriu F. Cross-education of muscular strength following unilateral resistance training: a meta-analysis. Eur J Appl Physiol 2017; 117:2335-2354. [PMID: 28936703 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-017-3720-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2017] [Accepted: 09/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Cross-education (CE) of strength is a well-known phenomenon whereby exercise of one limb can induce strength gains in the contralateral untrained limb. The only available meta-analyses on CE, which date back to a decade ago, estimated a modest 7.8% increase in contralateral strength following unilateral training. However, in recent years new evidences have outlined larger contralateral gains, which deserve to be systematically evaluated. Therefore, the aim of this meta-analysis was to appraise current data on CE and determine its overall magnitude of effect. METHODS Five databases were searched from inception to December 2016. All randomized controlled trials focusing on unilateral resistance training were carefully checked by two reviewers who also assessed the eligibility of the identified trials and extracted data independently. The risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane Risk-of-Bias tool. RESULTS Thirty-one studies entered the meta-analysis. Data from 785 subjects were pooled and subgroup analyses by body region (upper/lower limb) and type of training (isometric/concentric/eccentric/isotonic-dynamic) were performed. The pooled estimate of CE was a significant 11.9% contralateral increase (95% CI 9.1-14.8; p < 0.00001; upper limb: + 9.4%, p < 0.00001; lower limb: + 16.4%, p < 0.00001). Significant CE effects were induced by isometric (8.2%; p = 0.0003), concentric (11.3%; p < 0.00001), eccentric (17.7%; p = 0.003) and isotonic-dynamic training (15.9%; p < 0.00001), although a high risk of bias was detected across the studies. CONCLUSIONS Unilateral resistance training induces significant contraction type-dependent gains in the contralateral untrained limb. Methodological issues in the included studies are outlined to provide guidance for a reliable quantification of CE in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Manca
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, Viale S. Pietro 43/b, 07100, Sassari, Italy
| | - D Dragone
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, Viale S. Pietro 43/b, 07100, Sassari, Italy
| | - Z Dvir
- Department of Physical Therapy, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Franca Deriu
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, Viale S. Pietro 43/b, 07100, Sassari, Italy.
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Mason J, Frazer AK, Horvath DM, Pearce AJ, Avela J, Howatson G, Kidgell DJ. Ipsilateral corticomotor responses are confined to the homologous muscle following cross-education of muscular strength. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2017; 43:11-22. [PMID: 28829918 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2017-0457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Cross-education of strength occurs when strength-training 1 limb increases the strength of the untrained limb and is restricted to the untrained homologous muscle. Cortical circuits located ipsilateral to the trained limb might be involved. We used transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to determine the corticomotor responses from the untrained homologous (biceps brachii) and nonhomologous (flexor carpi radialis) muscle following strength-training of the right elbow flexors. Motor evoked potentials were recorded from the untrained left biceps brachii and flexor carpi radialis during a submaximal contraction from 20 individuals (10 women, 10 men; aged 18-35 years; training group, n = 10; control group, n = 10) before and after 3 weeks of strength-training the right biceps brachii at 80% of 1-repetition maximum. Recruitment-curves for corticomotor excitability and inhibition of the untrained homologous and nonhomologous muscle were constructed and assessed by examining the area under the recruitment curve. Strength-training increased strength of the trained elbow flexors (29%), resulting in an 18% increase in contralateral strength of the untrained elbow flexors (P < 0.0001). The trained wrist flexors increased by 19%, resulting in a 12% increase in strength of the untrained wrist flexors (P = 0.005). TMS showed increased corticomotor excitability and decreased corticomotor inhibition for the untrained homologous muscle (P < 0.05); however, there were no changes in the untrained nonhomologous muscle (P > 0.05). These findings show that the cross-education of muscular strength is spatially distributed; however, the neural adaptations are confined to the motor pathway ipsilateral to the untrained homologous agonist.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel Mason
- a Department of Physiotherapy, School of Primary and Allied Health Care, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Science, Monash University, Melbourne 3155, Australia
| | - Ashlyn K Frazer
- a Department of Physiotherapy, School of Primary and Allied Health Care, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Science, Monash University, Melbourne 3155, Australia
| | - Deanna M Horvath
- b Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, La Trobe University, Melbourne 3086, Australia
| | - Alan J Pearce
- c Discipline of Sport & Exercise Science, School of Allied Health, La Trobe University, Melbourne 3086, Australia
| | - Janne Avela
- d Department of Biology and Physical Activity, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä 40014, Finland
| | - Glyn Howatson
- e Department of Sport, Exercise & Rehabilitation, Northumbria University, Newcastle NE1 8ST, UK.,f Water Research Group, School of Environmental Sciences and Development, Northwest University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
| | - Dawson J Kidgell
- a Department of Physiotherapy, School of Primary and Allied Health Care, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Science, Monash University, Melbourne 3155, Australia
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Hendy AM, Chye L, Teo WP. Cross-Activation of the Motor Cortex during Unilateral Contractions of the Quadriceps. Front Hum Neurosci 2017; 11:397. [PMID: 28824401 PMCID: PMC5541022 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2017] [Accepted: 07/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) studies have demonstrated that unilateral muscle contractions in the upper limb produce motor cortical activity in both the contralateral and ipsilateral motor cortices. The increase in excitability of the corticomotor pathway activating the resting limb has been termed “cross-activation”, and is of importance due to its involvement in cross-education and rehabilitation. To date, very few studies have investigated cross-activation in the lower limb. Sixteen healthy participants (mean age 29 ± 9 years) took part in this study. To determine the effect of varying contraction intensities in the lower limb, we investigated corticomotor excitability and intracortical inhibition of the right rectus femoris (RF) while the left leg performed isometric extension at 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of maximum force output. Contraction intensities of 50% maximal force output and greater produced significant cross-activation of the corticomotor pathway. A reduction in silent period duration was observed during 75% and 100% contractions, while the release of short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI) was only observed during maximal (100%) contractions. We conclude that increasing isometric contraction intensities produce a monotonic increase in cross-activation, which was greatest during 100% force output. Unilateral training programs designed to induce cross-education of strength in the lower limb should therefore be prescribed at the maximal intensity tolerable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashlee M Hendy
- Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition (IPAN), School of Exercise and Nutrition Science, Deakin UniversityBurwood, VIC, Australia
| | - Lilian Chye
- Frailty Research Programme, Geriatric Education and Research InstituteYishun Central, Singapore
| | - Wei-Peng Teo
- Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition (IPAN), School of Exercise and Nutrition Science, Deakin UniversityBurwood, VIC, Australia
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40
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Hendy AM, Lamon S. The Cross-Education Phenomenon: Brain and Beyond. Front Physiol 2017; 8:297. [PMID: 28539892 PMCID: PMC5423908 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2017] [Accepted: 04/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives: Unilateral resistance training produces strength gains in the untrained homologous muscle group, an effect termed “cross-education.” The observed strength transfer has traditionally been considered a phenomenon of the nervous system, with few studies examining the contribution of factors beyond the brain and spinal cord. In this hypothesis and theory article, we aim to discuss further evidence for structural and functional adaptations occurring within the nervous, muscle, and endocrine systems in response to unilateral resistance training. The limitations of existing cross-education studies will be explored, and novel potential stakeholders that may contribute to the cross-education effect will be identified. Design: Critical review of the literature. Method: Search of online databases. Results: Studies have provided evidence that functional reorganization of the motor cortex facilitates, at least in part, the effects of cross-education. Cross-activation of the “untrained” motor cortex, ipsilateral to the trained limb, plays an important role. While many studies report little or no gains in muscle mass in the untrained limb, most experimental designs have not allowed for sensitive or comprehensive investigation of structural changes in the muscle. Conclusions: Increased neural drive originating from the “untrained” motor cortex contributes to the cross-education effect. Adaptive changes within the muscle fiber, as well as systemic and hormonal factors require further investigation. An increased understanding of the physiological mechanisms contributing to cross-education will enable to more effectively explore its effects and potential applications in rehabilitation of unilateral movement disorders or injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashlee M Hendy
- School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition, Deakin UniversityGeelong, VIC, Australia
| | - Séverine Lamon
- School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition, Deakin UniversityGeelong, VIC, Australia
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41
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Mason J, Frazer A, Horvath DM, Pearce AJ, Avela J, Howatson G, Kidgell D. Adaptations in corticospinal excitability and inhibition are not spatially confined to the agonist muscle following strength training. Eur J Appl Physiol 2017; 117:1359-1371. [DOI: 10.1007/s00421-017-3624-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2016] [Accepted: 04/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Baldissera FG, Tesio L. APAs Constraints to Voluntary Movements: The Case for Limb Movements Coupling. Front Hum Neurosci 2017; 11:152. [PMID: 28408875 PMCID: PMC5374888 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2016] [Accepted: 03/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
When rhythmically moving two limbs in either the same or in opposite directions, one coupling mode meets constraints that are absent in the other mode. Isodirectional (ISO) flexion-extensions of the ipsilateral hand and foot can be easily performed with either the hand prone or supine. Instead, antidirectional (ANTI) movements require attentive effort and irresistibly tend to reverse into ISO when frequency increases. Experimental evidence indicates that the direction dependent easy-difficult dichotomy is caused by interference of the anticipatory postural commands associated to movements of one limb with voluntary commands to the other limb. Excitability of the resting wrist muscles is subliminally modulated at the period of ipsilateral foot oscillations, being phase-opposite in the antagonists and distributed so as to facilitate ISO and obstacle ANTI coupling of the hand (either prone or supine) with the foot. Modulation is driven by cortical signals dispatched to the forearm simultaneously with the voluntary commands moving the foot. If right foot oscillations are performed when standing on the left foot with the right hand touching a fixed support, the subliminal excitability modulation is replaced by overt contractions of forearm muscles conforming the APAs features. This suggests that during hand-foot ANTI coupling the voluntary commands to forearm muscles are contrasted by APAs commands of opposite sign linked to foot oscillations. Correlation between the easy-difficult dichotomy and the APAs distribution is also found in coupled adduction-abduction of the arms or hands in the transverse plane and in coupled flexion-extension of the arms in the parasagittal plane. In all these movements, APAs commands linked to the movement of each limb reach the motor pathways to the contralateral muscles homologous to the prime movers and can interfere during coupling with their voluntary activation. APAs are also generated in postural muscles of trunk and lower limbs and size-increase when the movement frequency is incremented. The related increase in postural effort apparently contributes in destabilizing the difficult coupling mode. Motor learning may rely upon more effective APAs. APAs and focal contraction are entangled within the same voluntary action. Yet, neural diseases may selectively impair APAs, which represent a potential target for rehabilitation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Luigi Tesio
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di MilanoMilan, Italy.,Department of Neuro-Rehabilitation Sciences, Istituto Auxologico Italiano-IRCCSMilan, Italy
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43
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Frazer AK, Williams J, Spittle M, Kidgell DJ. Cross-education of muscular strength is facilitated by homeostatic plasticity. Eur J Appl Physiol 2017; 117:665-677. [DOI: 10.1007/s00421-017-3538-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2016] [Accepted: 01/04/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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44
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Beyer KS, Fukuda DH, Boone CH, Wells AJ, Townsend JR, Jajtner AR, Gonzalez AM, Fragala MS, Hoffman JR, Stout JR. Short-Term Unilateral Resistance Training Results in Cross Education of Strength Without Changes in Muscle Size, Activation, or Endocrine Response. J Strength Cond Res 2016; 30:1213-23. [PMID: 26466136 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000001219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Short-term unilateral resistance training results in cross education of strength without changes in muscle size, activation, or endocrine response. J Strength Cond Res 30(5): 1213-1223, 2016-The purpose of this study was to assess the cross education of strength and changes in the underlying mechanisms (muscle size, activation, and hormonal response) after a 4-week unilateral resistance training (URT) program. A group of 9 untrained men completed a 4-week URT program on the dominant leg (DOM), whereas cross education was measured in the nondominant leg (NON); and were compared with a control group (n = 8, CON). Unilateral isometric force (PKF), leg press (LP) and leg extension (LE) strength, muscle size (by ultrasonography) and activation (by electromyography) of the rectus femoris and vastus lateralis, and the hormonal response (testosterone, growth hormone, insulin, and insulin-like growth factor-1) were tested pretraining and posttraining. Group × time interactions were present for PKF, LP, LE, and muscle size in DOM and for LP in NON. In all interactions, the URT group improved significantly better than CON. There was a significant acute hormonal response to URT, but no chronic adaptation after the 4-week training program. Four weeks of URT resulted in an increase in strength and size of the trained musculature, and cross education of strength in the untrained musculature, which may occur without detectable changes in muscle size, activation, or the acute hormonal response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle S Beyer
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Wellness, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida
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45
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Nuzum ND, Hendy AM, Russell AP, Teo WP. Measures to Predict The Individual Variability of Corticospinal Responses Following Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation. Front Hum Neurosci 2016; 10:487. [PMID: 27766075 PMCID: PMC5052268 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2016] [Accepted: 09/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Individual responses to transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) are varied and therefore potentially limit its application. There is evidence that this variability is related to the contributions of Indirect waves (I-waves) recruited in the cortex. The latency of motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) can be measured through transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), allowing an individual's responsiveness to tDCS to be determined. However, this single-pulse method requires several different orientations of the TMS coil, potentially affecting its reliability. Instead, we propose a paired-pulse TMS paradigm targeting I-waves as an alternative method. This method uses one orientation that reduces inter- and intra-trial variability. It was hypothesized that the paired-pulse method would correlate more highly to tDCS responses than the single-pulse method. In a randomized, double blinded, cross-over design, 30 healthy participants completed two sessions, receiving 20 min of either anodal (2 mA) or sham tDCS. TMS was used to quantify Short interval intracortical facilitation (SICF) at Inter stimulus intervals (ISIs) of 1.5, 3.5 and 4.5 ms. Latency was determined in the posterior-anterior (PA), anterior-posterior (AP) and latero-medial (LM) coil orientations. The relationship between latency, SICF measures and the change in suprathreshold MEP amplitude size following tDCS were determined with Pearson's correlations. TMS measures, SICI and SICF were also used to determine responses to Anodal-tDCS (a-tDCS). Neither of the latency differences nor the SICF measures correlated to the change in MEP amplitude from pre-post tDCS (all P > 0.05). Overall, there was no significant response to tDCS in this cohort. This study highlights the need for testing the effects of various tDCS protocols on the different I-waves. Further research into SICF and whether it is a viable measure of I-wave facilitation is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan D Nuzum
- School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University Geelong, VIC, Australia
| | - Ashlee M Hendy
- School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University Geelong, VIC, Australia
| | - Aaron P Russell
- Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition (IPAN), Deakin University Geelong, VIC, Australia
| | - Wei-Peng Teo
- Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition (IPAN), Deakin University Geelong, VIC, Australia
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46
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Cross-education of wrist extensor strength is not influenced by non-dominant training in right-handers. Eur J Appl Physiol 2016; 116:1757-69. [DOI: 10.1007/s00421-016-3436-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2016] [Accepted: 07/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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47
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Huang LP, Zhou S, Ao M, Zhao ML, Zhang LQ, Cao LJ. Unilateral intramuscular needling can improve ankle dorsiflexor strength and muscle activation in both legs. J Exerc Sci Fit 2015; 13:86-93. [PMID: 29541104 PMCID: PMC5812873 DOI: 10.1016/j.jesf.2015.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2014] [Revised: 06/01/2015] [Accepted: 07/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to determine whether unilateral manual needling at nonacupoints could result in bilateral strength gain similar to that found in electroacupuncture at specific acupoints. METHODS Fifty healthy male volunteers with an age range of 19-27 years were recruited and randomly allocated into five groups: (1) manual acupuncture and (2) electroacupuncture at two acupoints (ST-36 and ST-39); (3) manual acupuncture and (4) electroacupuncture at two nonacupoints on the tibialis anterior muscle; and (5) control group. The intervention groups received needling in each session on the right leg for 15 minutes in Week 1, 20 minutes in Week 2, and 30 minutes in Weeks 3-8, three sessions per week. The maximal isometric ankle dorsiflexion strength and muscle activation (as determined by twitch interpolation) of both legs were assessed pre, post, 2 weeks post, and 3 weeks post the experimental period. RESULTS Mixed models (linear) with repeated-measures analysis identified significant strength gains (p < 0.01) after the intervention period in both limbs, while no significant differences were detected between the intervention groups and between the two legs, and no change was found in the control group. A significant improvement in muscle activation (p < 0.01) was also observed in both legs in the intervention groups. CONCLUSION It was concluded that both unilateral manual and electric needling caused significant bilateral strength gain, and this effect was not specific to the selected acupoints or electric stimulation. The strength gain was sustained for at least 3 weeks after the 8-week intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Ping Huang
- Department of Health and Exercise Science, Tianjin University of Sport, Tianjin, China
| | - Shi Zhou
- School of Health and Human Sciences, Southern Cross University, Lismore, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Ming Ao
- Department of Health and Exercise Science, Tianjin University of Sport, Tianjin, China
| | - Mei-Ling Zhao
- Department of Health and Exercise Science, Tianjin University of Sport, Tianjin, China
| | - Li-Qin Zhang
- Department of Health and Exercise Science, Tianjin University of Sport, Tianjin, China
| | - Long-Jun Cao
- Department of Health and Exercise Science, Tianjin University of Sport, Tianjin, China
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Rio E, Kidgell D, Moseley GL, Gaida J, Docking S, Purdam C, Cook J. Tendon neuroplastic training: changing the way we think about tendon rehabilitation: a narrative review. Br J Sports Med 2015; 50:209-15. [PMID: 26407586 PMCID: PMC4752665 DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2015-095215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Tendinopathy can be resistant to treatment and often recurs, implying that current treatment approaches are suboptimal. Rehabilitation programmes that have been successful in terms of pain reduction and return to sport outcomes usually include strength training. Muscle activation can induce analgesia, improving self-efficacy associated with reducing one's own pain. Furthermore, strength training is beneficial for tendon matrix structure, muscle properties and limb biomechanics. However, current tendon rehabilitation may not adequately address the corticospinal control of the muscle, which may result in altered control of muscle recruitment and the consequent tendon load, and this may contribute to recalcitrance or symptom recurrence. Outcomes of interest include the effect of strength training on tendon pain, corticospinal excitability and short interval cortical inhibition. The aims of this concept paper are to: (1) review what is known about changes to the primary motor cortex and motor control in tendinopathy, (2) identify the parameters shown to induce neuroplasticity in strength training and (3) align these principles with tendon rehabilitation loading protocols to introduce a combination approach termed as tendon neuroplastic training. Strength training is a powerful modulator of the central nervous system. In particular, corticospinal inputs are essential for motor unit recruitment and activation; however, specific strength training parameters are important for neuroplasticity. Strength training that is externally paced and akin to a skilled movement task has been shown to not only reduce tendon pain, but modulate excitatory and inhibitory control of the muscle and therefore, potentially tendon load. An improved understanding of the methods that maximise the opportunity for neuroplasticity may be an important progression in how we prescribe exercise-based rehabilitation in tendinopathy for pain modulation and potentially restoration of the corticospinal control of the muscle-tendon complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ebonie Rio
- Department of Physiotherapy, School of Primary Health Care, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia The Australian Centre for Research into Injury in Sport and its Prevention, Ballarat Federation University, Victoria, Australia
| | - Dawson Kidgell
- Department of Rehabilitation, Nutrition and Sport, School of Allied Health, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - G Lorimer Moseley
- Sansom Institute for Health Research, University of South Australia & Pain, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Jamie Gaida
- Department of Physiotherapy, School of Primary Health Care, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia Department of Physiotherapy, University of Canberra, Bruce, Australian Capital Territory, Australia University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, Australia
| | - Sean Docking
- Department of Physiotherapy, School of Primary Health Care, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia The Australian Centre for Research into Injury in Sport and its Prevention, Ballarat Federation University, Victoria, Australia
| | - Craig Purdam
- Department of Physical Therapies, Australian Institute of Sport, Bruce, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Jill Cook
- Department of Physiotherapy, School of Primary Health Care, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia The Australian Centre for Research into Injury in Sport and its Prevention, Ballarat Federation University, Victoria, Australia
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49
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Vincent G, Lamon S, Gant N, Vincent PJ, MacDonald JR, Markworth JF, Edge JA, Hickey AJR. Changes in mitochondrial function and mitochondria associated protein expression in response to 2-weeks of high intensity interval training. Front Physiol 2015; 6:51. [PMID: 25759671 PMCID: PMC4338748 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2015.00051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2014] [Accepted: 02/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE High-intensity short-duration interval training (HIT) stimulates functional and metabolic adaptation in skeletal muscle, but the influence of HIT on mitochondrial function remains poorly studied in humans. Mitochondrial metabolism as well as mitochondrial-associated protein expression were tested in untrained participants performing HIT over a 2-week period. METHODS Eight males performed a single-leg cycling protocol (12 × 1 min intervals at 120% peak power output, 90 s recovery, 4 days/week). Muscle biopsies (vastus lateralis) were taken pre- and post-HIT. Mitochondrial respiration in permeabilized fibers, citrate synthase (CS) activity and protein expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator (PGC-1α) and respiratory complex components were measured. RESULTS HIT training improved peak power and time to fatigue. Increases in absolute oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) capacities and CS activity were observed, but not in the ratio of CCO to the electron transport system (CCO/ETS), the respiratory control ratios (RCR-1 and RCR-2) or mitochondrial-associated protein expression. Specific increases in OXPHOS flux were not apparent after normalization to CS, indicating that gross changes mainly resulted from increased mitochondrial mass. CONCLUSION Over only 2 weeks HIT significantly increased mitochondrial function in skeletal muscle independently of detectable changes in mitochondrial-associated and mitogenic protein expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grace Vincent
- Centre for Physical Activity and Nutrition Research, School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University Melbourne VIC, Australia ; Department of Sport and Exercise Science, The University of Auckland Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Séverine Lamon
- Centre for Physical Activity and Nutrition Research, School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University Melbourne VIC, Australia
| | - Nicholas Gant
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, The University of Auckland Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Peter J Vincent
- Department of General Practice and Primary Healthcare, Auckland School of Medicine, The University of Auckland Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Julia R MacDonald
- Applied Surgery and Metabolism Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland Auckland, New Zealand
| | | | - Johann A Edge
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, The University of Auckland Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Anthony J R Hickey
- Applied Surgery and Metabolism Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland Auckland, New Zealand
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50
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Ward S, Pearce AJ, Pietrosimone B, Bennell K, Clark R, Bryant AL. Neuromuscular deficits after peripheral joint injury: a neurophysiological hypothesis. Muscle Nerve 2015; 51:327-32. [PMID: 25255714 DOI: 10.1002/mus.24463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
In addition to biomechanical disturbances, peripheral joint injuries (PJIs) can also result in chronic neuromuscular alterations due in part to loss of mechanoreceptor-mediated afferent feedback. An emerging perspective is that PJI should be viewed as a neurophysiological dysfunction, not simply a local injury. Neurophysiological and neuroimaging studies have provided some evidence for central nervous system (CNS) reorganization at both the cortical and spinal levels after PJI. The novel hypothesis proposed is that CNS reorganization is the underlying mechanism for persisting neuromuscular deficits after injury, particularly muscle weakness. There is a lack of direct evidence to support this hypothesis, but future studies utilizing force-matching tasks with superimposed transcranial magnetic stimulation may be help clarify this notion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Ward
- Centre for Health, Exercise and Sports Medicine, Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Science, University of Melbourne, 161 Barry Street, Carlton, Melbourne, Victoria, 3053, Australia
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