Parvovirus infections: features reminiscent of AIDS

Melatonin reduces mortality from Aleutian disease in mink (Mustela vison)

Aleutian disease (AD) results from a persistent parvoviral infection that results in marked hypergammaglobulinemia and immune complex mediated lesions of the kidney, liver, lungs and, arteries. Melatonin protected both a wild type or demi strain and a demi/dark crossed strain of mink from AD. The biogenic amine also afforded protection against other non-diagnosed diseases naturally found on mink farms when it was available from a subcutaneously-placed reservoir. Some genetic strains of mink apparently differed in the resistance of mink to the virus and in the protective ability of melatonin. The demi strain was the most resistant followed by pastels, mahogany, darks, and those strains with the double recessive Aleutian gene. The protective action of melatonin appeared to result from melatonin's ability to scavenge free radicals, but it could also be due to the induction of antioxidant enzymes or to the modulation of immunity. Melatonin also protected mink against distemper.

The relationship between capsid protein (VP2) sequence and pathogenicity of Aleutian mink disease parvovirus (ADV): a possible role for raccoons in the transmission of ADV infections

Aleutian mink disease parvovirus (ADV) DNA was identified by PCR in samples from mink and raccoons on commercial ranches during an outbreak of Aleutian disease (AD). Comparison of DNA sequences of the hypervariable portion of VP2, the major capsid protein of ADV, indicated that both mink and raccoons were infected by a new isolate of ADV, designated ADV-TR. Because the capsid proteins of other parvoviruses play a prominent role in the determination of viral pathogenicity and host range, we decided to examine the relationship between the capsid protein sequences and pathogenicity of ADV. Comparison of the ADV-TR hypervariable region sequence with sequences of other isolates of ADV revealed that ADV-TR was 94 to 100% related to the nonpathogenic type 1 ADV-G at both the DNA and amino acid levels but less than 90% related to other pathogenic ADVs like the type 2 ADV-Utah, the type 3 ADV-ZK8, or ADV-Pullman. This finding indicated that a virus with a type 1 hypervariable region could be pathogenic. To perform a more comprehensive analysis, the complete VP2 sequence of ADV-TR was obtained and compared with that of the 647-amino-acid VP2 of ADV-G and the corresponding VP2 sequences of the pathogenic ADV-Utah, ADV-Pullman, and ADV-ZK8. Although the hypervariable region amino acid sequence of ADV-TR was identical to that of ADV-G, there were 12 amino acid differences between ADV-G and ADV-TR. Each of these differences was at a position where other pathogenic isolates also differed from ADV-G. Thus, although ADV-TR had the hypervariable sequence of the nonpathogenic type 1 ADV-G, the remainder of the VP2 sequence resembled sequences of other pathogenic ADVs. Under experimental conditions, ADV-TR and ADV-Utah were highly pathogenic and induced typical AD in trios of both Aleutian and non-Aleutian mink, whereas ADV-Pullman was pathogenic only for Aleutian mink and ADV-G was noninfectious. Trios of raccoons experimentally inoculated with ADV-TR and ADV-Utah all became infected with ADV, but only a single ADV-Pullman-inoculated raccoon showed evidence of infection. Furthermore, none of the ADV isolates induced pathological findings of AD in raccoons. Finally, when a preparation of ADV-TR prepared from infected raccoon lymph nodes was inoculated into mink and raccoons, typical AD was induced in Aleutian and non-Aleutian mink, but raccoons failed to show serological or pathological evidence of infection. These results indicated that raccoons can become infected with ADV and may have a role in the transmission of virus to mink but that raccoon-to-raccoon transmission of ADV is unlikely.

Fetal damage caused by parvoviral infections

The single-stranded DNA parvoviruses occur in humans and many species of animals. In general, they are species-specific and capable of producing disease at any stage of life. Parvoviruses have a requirement to replicate in cells in a permissive S-phase of DNA mitosis. The infections may be cytolytic to select cell groups resulting in specific developmental defects or may produce more generalized effects such as anemia, pancytopenia, or hemorrhage. The fetus is at particular risk for damage because of the vast number of cells in active mitosis. The teratogenic effects may be severe, often resulting in fetal death. Infections in childhood and adulthood are more frequently mild to subclinical. Some of the teratogenic effects recognized in animal species have been identified in humans. With increased knowledge of parvovirus effects in animals, more pathogenic effects may be related to human parvoviral disease. The need for vaccination, currently used annually in many domestic animal species, continues to be evaluated for humans.

Comparison of promoter activity in Aleutian mink disease parvovirus, minute virus of mice, and canine parvovirus: possible role of weak promoters in the pathogenesis of Aleutian mink disease parvovirus infection

Aleutian mink disease parvovirus (ADV) infection causes both acute and chronic disease in mink, and we have previously shown that it is the level of viral gene expression that determines the disease pattern. To study the gene regulation of ADV, we have cloned the P3 ADV and P36 ADV promoters in front of a reporter gene, the chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) gene, and analyzed these constructs by transient transfection in a feline kidney cell line and mouse NIH 3T3 cells. The genes for ADV structural proteins (VP1 and VP2) and the nonstructural proteins (NS-1, NS-2, and NS-3) were cloned into a eukaryotic expression vector, and their functions in regulation of the P3 ADV and P36 ADV promoters were examined in cotransfection experiments. The ADV NS-1 protein was able to transactivate the P36 ADV promoter and, to a lesser degree, the P3 ADV promoter. Constitutive activities of the P3 ADV and P36 ADV promoters were weaker than those of the corresponding promoters from the prototypic parvovirus minute virus of mice (MVM) and canine parvovirus (CPV). Also, the level of transactivation of the P36 ADV promoter was much lower than those of the corresponding P38 MVM and P38 CPV promoters transactivated with MVM NS-1. Moreover, the ADV NS-1 gene product could transactivate the P38 MVM promoter to higher levels than it could transactivate the P36 ADV promoter, while the P36 ADV promoter could be transactivated by MVM NS-1 and ADV NS-1 to similar levels. Taken together, these data indicated that cis-acting sequences in the P36 ADV promoter play a major role in determining the low level of transactivation observed. The P3 ADV and P4 MVM promoters could be transactivated to some degree by their respective NS-1 gene products. However, in contrast to the situation for the late promoters, switching NS-1 proteins between the two viruses was not possible. This finding may indicate a different mechanism of transactivation of the early promoters (P3 ADV and P4 MVM) compared with the late (P36 ADV and P38 MVM) promoters. In summary, the constitutive levels of expression from the ADV promoters are weaker than the levels from the corresponding promoters of MVM and CPV. Moreover, the level of NS-1-mediated transactivation of the late ADV promoter is impaired compared with the level of transactivation of the late promoters of MVM and CPV.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Expression of Aleutian mink disease parvovirus proteins in a baculovirus vector system

We have previously published a detailed transcription map of Aleutian mink disease parvovirus (ADV) and proposed a model for the translation of the two virion structural proteins (VP1 and VP2) and three nonstructural proteins (NS-1, NS-2, and NS-3) (S. Alexandersen, M. E. Bloom, and S. Perryman, J. Virol. 62:3684-3994, 1988). To verify and further characterize this model, we cloned the predicted open reading frames for NS-1, NS-2, NS-3, VP1-VP2, and VP2 alone into a recombinant baculovirus and expressed them in Sf9 insect cells. Expression of VP1-VP2 or VP2 alone in cDNA and in the genomic form was achieved. The expressed proteins had molecular weights similar to those of the corresponding proteins of wild-type ADV-G, although the ratio of VP1 to VP2 was altered. The recombinant baculovirus-expressed ADV VP1 and VP2 showed nuclear localization in Sf9 cells and were able to form particles indistinguishable, by electron microscopy, from wild-type virus. The large nonstructural protein, NS-1, showed predominantly nuclear localization in Sf9 cells when analyzed by immunofluorescence and had a molecular weight similar to that of wild-type ADV NS-1. Moreover, expression of NS-1 in Sf9 cells caused a change in morphology of the cells and resulted in 10-times-lower titers of recombinant baculovirus during infection, suggesting a cytostatic or cytotoxic action of this protein. The smaller NS-2 gene product seems to be located in the cytoplasm. When analyzed by Western immunoblotting, NS-2 comigrated with an approximately 16-kDa band seen in lysates of ADV-infected feline kidney cells. The putative NS-3 gene product exhibited a diffuse distribution in Sf9 cells and had a molecular weight of approximately 10,000. All of the expressed ADV-encoded proteins were recognized by sera from ADV-infected mink. Thus, expression of ADV cDNAs allowed assignment of the different mRNAs to the viral proteins observed during ADV infection in cell culture and supported our previously proposed ADV transcriptional and translational scheme. Moreover, the production of structural proteins from a full-length NS-2 mRNA may add to the repertoire of parvovirus gene expression.

Nucleotide sequence and genomic organization of Aleutian mink disease parvovirus (ADV): sequence comparisons between a nonpathogenic and a pathogenic strain of ADV

A DNA sequence of 4,592 nucleotides (nt) was derived for the nonpathogenic ADV-G strain of Aleutian mink disease parvovirus (ADV). The 3'(left) end of the virion strand contained a 117-nt palindrome that could assume a Y-shaped configuration similar to, but less stable than, that of other parvoviruses. The sequence obtained for the 5' end was incomplete and did not contain the 5' (right) hairpin structure but ended just after a 25-nt A + T-rich direct repeat. Features of ADV genomic organization are (i) major left (622 amino acids) and right (702 amino acids) open reading frames (ORFs) in different translational frames of the plus-sense strand, (ii) two short mid-ORFs, (iii) eight potential promoter motifs (TATA boxes), including ones at 3 and 36 map units, and (iv) six potential polyadenylation sites, including three clustered near the termination of the right ORF. Although the overall homology to other parvoviruses is less than 50%, there are short conserved amino acid regions in both major ORFs. However, two regions in the right ORF allegedly conserved among the parvoviruses were not present in ADV. At the DNA level, ADV-G is 97.5% related to the pathogenic ADV-Utah 1. A total of 22 amino acid changes were found in the right ORF; changes were found in both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions and generally did not affect the theoretical hydropathy. However, there is a short heterogeneous region at 64 to 65 map units in which 8 out of 11 residues have diverged; this hypervariable segment may be analogous to short amino acid regions in other parvoviruses that determine host range and pathogenicity. These findings suggested that this region may harbor some of the determinants responsible for the differences in pathogenicity of ADV-G and ADV-Utah 1.

Evidence of restricted viral replication in adult mink infected with Aleutian disease of mink parvovirus

Strand-specific hybridization probes were used in in situ molecular hybridization specifically to localize cells containing replicative intermediates of Aleutian disease of mink parvovirus (ADV). When adult mink of Aleutian genotype were infected with ADV Utah I, the largest number of cells positive for viral replication (i.e., containing replicative-form DNA and RNA) were found in the mesenteric lymph nodes and spleens at 10 days after infection. The localization of positive cells in the middle of germinal centers suggested that they were B lymphoblasts. Circulating leukocytes and bone marrow cells also contained viral RNA, but the levels of replicative-form DNA were below detectability. The levels of viral DNA and RNA in adult mink cells replicating ADV were decreased compared with those in permissively infected cell cultures or neonatal mink, suggesting that the replication of ADV in adult mink might be semipermissive or restricted at some early stage of viral gene expression. The low level of viral replication and transcription in lymphoid cells might provide a mechanism for the development of immune disorders and for the maintenance of persistent infection. Single-stranded virion DNA was found in other organs, but the strand-specific probes made it possible to show that this DNA represented virus sequestration. In addition, glomerular immune complexes containing virion DNA were detected, suggesting that ADV virions, or perhaps free DNA, may have a role in the development of ADV-induced glomerulonephritis.

Potential detrimental effects of rodent viral infections on long-term experiments

Healthy animals are of paramount importance in obtaining meaningful, reliable scientific results. Viral infections of rodents often have a significant impact on various types of biomedical research. Laboratory animal specialists and researchers must be aware of the possible consequences associated with the use of infected animals. The objective of the paper is a discussion of the frequently encountered viral infections that can complicate or invalidate the interpretation of results by altering the host's response.

Analysis of molecularly cloned DNA reveals minor differences among three virus strains of Aleutian disease of mink parvovirus. Brief report

Molecular clones representing a 1.55 kbp genomic segment from three strains of Aleutian disease parvovirus (ADV) were studied. All three clones directed synthesis of viral structural antigens. In addition, 19 of 23 restriction sites were shared among viruses.

Analysis of Aleutian disease virus infection in vitro and in vivo: demonstration of Aleutian disease virus DNA in tissues of infected mink

Aleutian disease virus (ADV) infection was analyzed in vivo and in vitro to compare virus replication in cell culture and in mink. Initial experiments compared cultures of Crandell feline kidney (CRFK) cells infected with the avirulent ADV-G strain or the highly virulent Utah I ADV. The number of ADV-infected cells was estimated by calculating the percentage of cells displaying ADV antigen by immunofluorescence (IFA), and several parameters of infection were determined. Infected cells contained large quantities of viral DNA (more than 10(5) genomes per infected cell) as estimated by dot-blot DNA-DNA hybridization, and much of the viral DNA, when analyzed by Southern blot hybridization, was found to be of a 4.8-kilobase-pair duplex monomeric replicative form (DM DNA). Furthermore, the cultures contained 7 to 67 fluorescence-forming units (FFU) per infected cell, and the ADV genome per FFU ratio ranged between 2 X 10(3) and 164 X 10(3). Finally, the pattern of viral antigen detected by IFA was characteristically nuclear, although cytoplasmic fluorescence was often found in the same cells. Because no difference was noted between the two virus strains when cultures containing similar numbers of infected cells were compared, it seemed that both viruses behaved similarly in infected cell culture. These data were used as a basis for the analysis of infection of mink by virulent Utah I ADV. Ten days after infection, the highest levels of viral DNA were detected in spleen (373 genomes per cell), mesenteric lymph node (MLN; 750 genomes per cell), and liver (373 genomes per cell). In marked contrast to infected CRFK cells, the predominant species of ADV DNA in all tissues was single-stranded virion DNA; however, 4.8-kilobase-pair DM DNA was found in MLN and spleen. This observation suggested that MLN and spleen were sites of virus replication, but that the DNA found in liver reflected sequestration of virus produced elsewhere. A final set of experiments examined MLN taken from nine mink 10 days after Utah I ADV infection. All of the nodes contained ADV DNA (46 to 750 genomes per cell), and although single-stranded virion DNA was always the most abundant species, DM DNA was observed. All of the lymph nodes contained virus infectious for CRFK cells, but when the genome per FFU ratio was calculated, virus from the lymph nodes required almost 1,000 times more genomes to produce an FFU than did virus prepared from infected cell cultures.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)