Mechanotransduction and cartilage integrity

Biomechanical research using advanced micro-nano devices: In-Vitro cell Characterization focus

BACKGROUND

Cells in the body reside in a dynamic microenvironment subjected to various physical stimuli, where mechanical stimulation plays a crucial role in regulating cellular physiological behaviors and functions.

AIM OF REVIEW

Investigating the mechanisms and interactions of mechanical transmission is essential for understanding the physiological and functional interplay between cells and physical stimuli. Therefore, establishing an in vitro biomechanical stimulation cell culture system holds significant importance for research related to cellular biomechanics.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

In this review, we primarily focused on various biomechanically relevant cell culture systems and highlighted the advancements and prospects in their preparation processes. Firstly, we discussed the types and characteristics of biomechanics present in the microenvironment within the human body. Subsequently, we introduced the research progress, working principles, preparation processes, potential advantages, applications, and challenges of various biomechanically relevant in vitro cell culture systems. Additionally, we summarized and categorized currently commercialized biomechanically relevant cell culture systems, offering a comprehensive reference for researchers in related fields.

Membrane Ruffles: Composition, Function, Formation and Visualization

Membrane ruffles are cell actin-based membrane protrusions that have distinct structural characteristics. Linear ruffles with columnar spike-like and veil-like structures assemble at the leading edge of cell membranes. Circular dorsal ruffles (CDRs) have no supporting columnar structures but their veil-like structures, connecting from end to end, present an enclosed ring-shaped circular outline. Membrane ruffles are involved in multiple cell functions such as cell motility, macropinocytosis, receptor internalization, fluid viscosity sensing in a two-dimensional culture environment, and protecting cells from death in response to physiologically compressive loads. Herein, we review the state-of-the-art knowledge on membrane ruffle structure and function, the growth factor-induced membrane ruffling process, and the growth factor-independent ruffling mode triggered by calcium and other stimulating factors, together with the respective underlying mechanisms. We also summarize the inhibitors used in ruffle formation studies and their specificity. In the last part, an overview is given of the various techniques in which the membrane ruffles have been visualized up to now.

Hippo-PKCζ-NFκB signaling axis: A druggable modulator of chondrocyte responses to mechanical stress

Recent studies have implicated a crucial role of Hippo signaling in cell fate determination by biomechanical signals. Here we show that mechanical loading triggers the activation of a Hippo-PKCζ-NFκB pathway in chondrocytes, resulting in the expression of NFκB target genes associated with inflammation and matrix degradation. Mechanistically, mechanical loading activates an atypical PKC, PKCζ, which phosphorylates NFκB p65 at Serine 536, stimulating its transcriptional activation. This mechanosensitive activation of PKCζ and NFκB p65 is impeded in cells with gene deletion or chemical inhibition of Hippo core kinases LATS1/2, signifying an essential role of Hippo signaling in this mechanotransduction. A PKC inhibitor AEB-071 or PKCζ knockdown prevents p65 Serine 536 phosphorylation. Our study uncovers that the interplay of the Hippo signaling, PKCζ, and NFκB in response to mechanical loading serves as a therapeutic target for knee osteoarthritis and other conditions resulting from mechanical overloading or Hippo signaling deficiencies.

Biomechanics of the Human Osteochondral Unit: A Systematic Review

The damping system ensured by the osteochondral (OC) unit is essential to deploy the forces generated within load-bearing joints during locomotion, allowing furthermore low-friction sliding motion between bone segments. The OC unit is a multi-layer structure including articular cartilage, as well as subchondral and trabecular bone. The interplay between the OC tissues is essential in maintaining the joint functionality; altered loading patterns can trigger biological processes that could lead to degenerative joint diseases like osteoarthritis. Currently, no effective treatments are available to avoid degeneration beyond tissues' recovery capabilities. A thorough comprehension on the mechanical behaviour of the OC unit is essential to (i) soundly elucidate its overall response to intra-articular loads for developing diagnostic tools capable of detecting non-physiological strain levels, (ii) properly evaluate the efficacy of innovative treatments in restoring physiological strain levels, and (iii) optimize regenerative medicine approaches as potential and less-invasive alternatives to arthroplasty when irreversible damage has occurred. Therefore, the leading aim of this review was to provide an overview of the state-of-the-art-up to 2022-about the mechanical behaviour of the OC unit. A systematic search is performed, according to PRISMA standards, by focusing on studies that experimentally assess the human lower-limb joints' OC tissues. A multi-criteria decision-making method is proposed to quantitatively evaluate eligible studies, in order to highlight only the insights retrieved through sound and robust approaches. This review revealed that studies on human lower limbs are focusing on the knee and articular cartilage, while hip and trabecular bone studies are declining, and the ankle and subchondral bone are poorly investigated. Compression and indentation are the most common experimental techniques studying the mechanical behaviour of the OC tissues, with indentation also being able to provide information at the micro- and nanoscales. While a certain comparability among studies was highlighted, none of the identified testing protocols are currently recognised as standard for any of the OC tissues. The fibril-network-reinforced poro-viscoelastic constitutive model has become common for describing the response of the articular cartilage, while the models describing the mechanical behaviour of mineralised tissues are usually simpler (i.e., linear elastic, elasto-plastic). Most advanced studies have tested and modelled multiple tissues of the same OC unit but have done so individually rather than through integrated approaches. Therefore, efforts should be made in simultaneously evaluating the comprehensive response of the OC unit to intra-articular loads and the interplay between the OC tissues. In this regard, a multidisciplinary approach combining complementary techniques, e.g., full-field imaging, mechanical testing, and computational approaches, should be implemented and validated. Furthermore, the next challenge entails transferring this assessment to a non-invasive approach, allowing its application in vivo, in order to increase its diagnostic and prognostic potential.

Role of mechanically-sensitive cation channels Piezo1 and TRPV4 in trabecular meshwork cell mechanotransduction

Glaucoma is one of the leading causes of irreversible blindness in developed countries, and intraocular pressure (IOP) is primary and only treatable risk factor, suggesting that to a significant extent, glaucoma is a disease of IOP disorder and pathological mechanotransduction. IOP-lowering ways are limited to decreaseing aqueous humour (AH) production or increasing the uveoscleral outflow pathway. Still, therapeutic approaches have been lacking to control IOP by enhancing the trabecular meshwork (TM) pathway. Trabecular meshwork cells (TMCs) have endothelial and myofibroblast properties and are responsible for the renewal of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Mechanosensitive cation channels, including Piezo1 and TRPV4, are abundantly expressed in primary TMCs and trigger mechanostress-dependent ECM and cytoskeletal remodelling. However, prolonged mechanical stimulation severely affects cellular biosynthesis through TMC mechanotransduction, including signaling, gene expression, ECM remodelling, and cytoskeletal structural changes, involving outflow facilities and elevating IOP. As for the functional coupling relationship between Piezo1 and TRPV4 channels, inspired by VECs and osteoblasts, we hypothesized that Piezo1 may also act upstream of TRPV4 in glaucomatous TM tissue, mediating the activation of TRPV4 via Ca2+ inflow or Ca2+ binding to phospholipase A2(PLA2), and thus be involved in increasing TM outflow resistance and elevated IOP. Therefore, this review aims to help identify new potential targets for IOP stabilization in ocular hypertension and primary open-angle glaucoma by understanding the mechanical transduction mechanisms associated with the development of glaucoma and may provide ideas into novel treatments for preventing the progression of glaucoma by targeting mechanotransduction.

Unraveling cartilage degeneration through synergistic effects of hydrostatic pressure and biomimetic temperature increase

Cartilage degeneration, typically viewed as an irreversible, vicious cycle, sees a significant reduction in two essential biophysical cues: the well-established hydrostatic pressure (HP) and the recently discovered transient temperature increase. Our study aimed to evaluate the combined influence of these cues on maintaining cartilage homeostasis. To achieve this, we developed a customized bioreactor, designed to mimic the specific hydrostatic pressure and transient thermal increase experienced during human knee physiological activities. This system enabled us to investigate the response of human 3D-cultured chondrocytes and human cartilage explants to either isolated or combined hydrostatic pressure and thermal stimuli. Our study found that chondroinduction (SOX9, aggrecan, and sulfated glycosaminoglycan) and chondroprotection (HSP70) reached maximum expression levels when hydrostatic pressure and transient thermal increase acted in tandem, underscoring the critical role of these combined cues in preserving cartilage homeostasis. These findings led us to propose a refined model of the vicious cycle of cartilage degeneration.

A Review of the Role of Bioreactors for iPSCs-Based Tissue-Engineered Articular Cartilage

BACKGROUND

Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most common degenerative joint disease without an ultimate treatment. In a search for novel approaches, tissue engineering (TE) has shown great potential to be an effective way for hyaline cartilage regeneration and repair in advanced stages of OA. Recently, induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) have been appointed to be essential stem cells for degenerative disease treatment because they allow a personalized medicine approach. For clinical translation, bioreactors in combination with iPSCs-engineerd cartilage could match patients needs, serve as platform for large-scale patient specific cartilage production, and be a tool for patient OA modelling and drug screening. Furthermore, to minimize in vivo experiments and improve cell differentiation and cartilage extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition, TE combines existing approaches with bioreactors.

METHODS

This review summarizes the current understanding of bioreactors and the necessary parameters when they are intended for cartilage TE, focusing on the potential use of iPSCs.

RESULTS

Bioreactors intended for cartilage TE must resemble the joint cavity niche. However, recreating human synovial joints is not trivial because the interactions between various stimuli are not entirely understood.

CONCLUSION

The use of mechanical and electrical stimulation to differentiate iPSCs, and maintain and test chondrocytes are key stimuli influencing hyaline cartilage homeostasis. Incorporating these stimuli to bioreactors can positively impact cartilage TE approaches and their possibility for posterior translation into the clinics.

Biomimetic Hyaluronic Acid-Based Brush Polymers Modulate Chondrocyte Homeostasis via ROS/Ca2+/TRPV4

Bionic mimics using natural cartilage matrix molecules can modulate the corresponding metabolic activity by improving the microenvironment of chondrocytes. A bionic brush polymer, HA/PX, has been found to reverse the loss of cartilage extracellular matrix (ECM) and has promising applications in the clinical treatment of osteoarthritis (OA). However, the unknown bioremediation mechanism of HA/PX severely hinders its clinical translation. In OA, the massive loss of the ECM may be attributed to a decrease in transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) activity, which affects reactive oxygen species (ROS) clearance and [Ca2+]i signaling, initiating downstream catabolic pathways. In this study, we investigated the bioremediation mechanism of HA/PX in a model of interleukin 1β (IL-1β)-induced inflammation. Through TRPV4, HA/PX reduced ROS accumulation in chondrocytes and enhanced [Ca2+]i signaling, reflecting a short-term protection capacity for chondrocytes. In addition, HA/PX balanced the metabolic homeostasis of chondrocytes via TRPV4, including promoting the secretion of type II collagen (Col-II) and aggrecan, the major components of the ECM, and reducing the expression of matrix metal-degrading enzyme (MMP-13), exerting long-term protective effects on chondrocytes. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations showed that HA/PX could act as a TRPV4 activator. Our results suggest that HA/PX can regulate chondrocyte homeostasis via ROS/Ca2+/TRPV4, thereby improving cartilage regeneration. Because the ECM is a prevalent feature of various cell types, HA/PX holds promising potential for improving regeneration and disease modification for not only cartilage-related healthcare but many other tissues and diseases.

The intricate mechanism of PLS3 in bone homeostasis and disease

Since our discovery in 2013 that genetic defects in PLS3 lead to bone fragility, the mechanistic details of this process have remained obscure. It has been established that PLS3 variants cause syndromic and nonsyndromic osteoporosis as well as osteoarthritis. PLS3 codes for an actin-bundling protein with a broad pattern of expression. As such, it is puzzling how PLS3 specifically leads to bone-related disease presentation. Our review aims to summarize the current state of knowledge regarding the function of PLS3 in the predominant cell types in the bone tissue, the osteocytes, osteoblasts and osteoclasts. This is related to the role of PLS3 in regulating mechanotransduction, calcium regulation, vesicle trafficking, cell differentiation and mineralization as part of the complex bone pathology presented by PLS3 defects. Considering the consequences of PLS3 defects on multiple aspects of bone tissue metabolism, our review motivates the study of its mechanism in bone diseases which can potentially help in the design of suitable therapy.

Hippo Signaling Modulates the Inflammatory Response of Chondrocytes to Mechanical Compressive Loading

Knee osteoarthritis (KOA) is a degenerative disease resulting from mechanical overload, where direct physical impacts on chondrocytes play a crucial role in disease development by inducing inflammation and extracellular matrix degradation. However, the signaling cascades that sense these physical impacts and induce the pathogenic transcriptional programs of KOA remain to be defined, which hinders the identification of novel therapeutic approaches. Recent studies have implicated a crucial role of Hippo signaling in osteoarthritis. Since Hippo signaling senses mechanical cues, we aimed to determine its role in chondrocyte responses to mechanical overload. Here we show that mechanical loading induces the expression of inflammatory and matrix-degrading genes by activating the nuclear factor-kappaB (NFκB) pathway in a Hippo-dependent manner. Applying mechanical compressional force to 3-dimensional cultured chondrocytes activated NFκB and induced the expression of NFκB target genes for inflammation and matrix degradation (i.e., IL1β and ADAMTS4). Interestingly, deleting the Hippo pathway effector YAP or activating YAP by deleting core Hippo kinases LATS1/2 blocked the NFκB pathway activation induced by mechanical loading. Consistently, treatment with a LATS1/2 kinase inhibitor abolished the upregulation of IL1β and ADAMTS4 caused by mechanical loading. Mechanistically, mechanical loading activates Protein Kinase C (PKC), which activates NFκB p65 by phosphorylating its Serine 536. Furthermore, the mechano-activation of both PKC and NFκB p65 is blocked in LATS1/2 or YAP knockout cells, indicating that the Hippo pathway is required by this mechanoregulation. Additionally, the mechanical loading-induced phosphorylation of NFκB p65 at Ser536 is blocked by the LATS1/2 inhibitor Lats-In-1 or the PKC inhibitor AEB-071. Our study suggests that the interplay of the Hippo signaling and PKC controls NFκB-mediated inflammation and matrix degradation in response to mechanical loading. Chemical inhibitors targeting Hippo signaling or PKC can prevent the mechanoresponses of chondrocytes associated with inflammation and matrix degradation, providing a novel therapeutic strategy for KOA.

Location-Dependent Human Osteoarthritis Cartilage Response to Realistic Cyclic Loading: Ex-Vivo Analysis on Different Knee Compartments

Objective: Osteoarthritis (OA) is a multifactorial musculoskeletal disorder affecting mostly weight-bearing joints. Chondrocyte response to load is modulated by inflammatory mediators and factors involved in extracellular cartilage matrix (ECM) maintenance, but regulatory mechanisms are not fully clarified yet. By using a recently proposed experimental model combining biomechanical data with cartilage molecular information, basally and following ex-vivo load application, we aimed at improving the understanding of human cartilage response to cyclic mechanical compressive stimuli by including cartilage original anatomical position and OA degree as independent factors. Methods: 19 mono-compartmental Knee OA patients undergoing total knee replacement were recruited. Cartilage explants from four different femoral condyles zones and with different degeneration levels were collected. The response of cartilage samples, pooled according to OA score and anatomical position was tested ex-vivo in a bioreactor. Mechanical stimulation was obtained via a 3-MPa 1-Hz sinusoidal compressive load for 45-min to replicate average knee loading during normal walking. Samples were analysed for chondrocyte gene expression and ECM factor release. Results: Non parametric univariate and multivariate (generalized linear mixed model) analysis was performed to evaluate the effect of compression and IL-1β stimulation in relationship to the anatomical position, local disease severity and clinical parameters with a level of significance set at 0.05. We observed an anti-inflammatory effect of compression inducing a significant downmodulation of IL-6 and IL-8 levels correlated to the anatomical regions, but not to OA score. Moreover, ADAMTS5, PIICP, COMP and CS were upregulated by compression, whereas COL-2CAV was downmodulated, all in relationship to the anatomical position and to the OA degree. Conclusion: While unconfined compression testing may not be fully representative of the in-vivo biomechanical situation, this study demonstrates the importance to consider the original cartilage anatomical position for a reliable biomolecular analysis of knee OA metabolism following mechanical stimulation.

The Role of Mechanically-Activated Ion Channels Piezo1, Piezo2, and TRPV4 in Chondrocyte Mechanotransduction and Mechano-Therapeutics for Osteoarthritis

Mechanical factors play critical roles in the pathogenesis of joint disorders like osteoarthritis (OA), a prevalent progressive degenerative joint disease that causes debilitating pain. Chondrocytes in the cartilage are responsible for extracellular matrix (ECM) turnover, and mechanical stimuli heavily influence cartilage maintenance, degeneration, and regeneration via mechanotransduction of chondrocytes. Thus, understanding the disease-associated mechanotransduction mechanisms can shed light on developing effective therapeutic strategies for OA through targeting mechanotransducers to halt progressive cartilage degeneration. Mechanosensitive Ca2+-permeating channels are robustly expressed in primary articular chondrocytes and trigger force-dependent cartilage remodeling and injury responses. This review discusses the current understanding of the roles of Piezo1, Piezo2, and TRPV4 mechanosensitive ion channels in cartilage health and disease with a highlight on the potential mechanotheraputic strategies to target these channels and prevent cartilage degeneration associated with OA.

Fenoldopam Sensitizes Primary Cilia-Mediated Mechanosensing to Promote Osteogenic Intercellular Signaling and Whole Bone Adaptation

Bone cells actively respond to mechanical stimuli to direct bone formation, yet there is no current treatment strategy for conditions of low bone mass and osteoporosis designed to target the inherent mechanosensitivity of bone. Our group has previously identified the primary cilium as a critical mechanosensor within bone, and that pharmacologically targeting the primary cilium with fenoldopam can enhance osteocyte mechanosensitivity. Here, we demonstrate that potentiating osteocyte mechanosensing with fenoldopam in vitro promotes pro-osteogenic paracrine signaling to osteoblasts. Conversely, impairing primary cilia formation and the function of key ciliary mechanotransduction proteins attenuates this intercellular signaling cascade. We then utilize an in vivo model of load-induced bone formation to demonstrate that fenoldopam treatment sensitizes bones of both healthy and osteoporotic mice to mechanical stimulation. Furthermore, we show minimal adverse effects of this treatment and demonstrate that prolonged treatment biases trabecular bone adaptation. This work is the first to examine the efficacy of targeting primary cilia-mediated mechanosensing to enhance bone formation in osteoporotic animals. © 2022 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR).

Integrins, cadherins and channels in cartilage mechanotransduction: perspectives for future regeneration strategies

Articular cartilage consists of hyaline cartilage, is a major constituent of the human musculoskeletal system and has critical functions in frictionless joint movement and articular homoeostasis. Osteoarthritis (OA) is an inflammatory disease of articular cartilage, which promotes joint degeneration. Although it affects millions of people, there are no satisfying therapies that address this disease at the molecular level. Therefore, tissue regeneration approaches aim at modifying chondrocyte biology to mitigate the consequences of OA. This requires appropriate biochemical and biophysical stimulation of cells. Regarding the latter, mechanotransduction of chondrocytes and their precursor cells has become increasingly important over the last few decades. Mechanotransduction is the transformation of external biophysical stimuli into intracellular biochemical signals, involving sensor molecules at the cell surface and intracellular signalling molecules, so-called mechano-sensors and -transducers. These signalling events determine cell behaviour. Mechanotransducing ion channels and gap junctions additionally govern chondrocyte physiology. It is of great scientific and medical interest to induce a specific cell behaviour by controlling these mechanotransduction pathways and to translate this knowledge into regenerative clinical therapies. This review therefore focuses on the mechanotransduction properties of integrins, cadherins and ion channels in cartilaginous tissues to provide perspectives for cartilage regeneration.

Mechanotransducive Biomimetic Systems for Chondrogenic Differentiation In Vitro

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a long-term chronic joint disease characterized by the deterioration of bones and cartilage, which results in rubbing of bones which causes joint stiffness, pain, and restriction of movement. Tissue engineering strategies for repairing damaged and diseased cartilage tissue have been widely studied with various types of stem cells, chondrocytes, and extracellular matrices being on the lead of new discoveries. The application of natural or synthetic compound-based scaffolds for the improvement of chondrogenic differentiation efficiency and cartilage tissue engineering is of great interest in regenerative medicine. However, the properties of such constructs under conditions of mechanical load, which is one of the most important factors for the successful cartilage regeneration and functioning in vivo is poorly understood. In this review, we have primarily focused on natural compounds, particularly extracellular matrix macromolecule-based scaffolds and their combinations for the chondrogenic differentiation of stem cells and chondrocytes. We also discuss different mechanical forces and compression models that are used for In Vitro studies to improve chondrogenic differentiation. Summary of provided mechanical stimulation models In Vitro reviews the current state of the cartilage tissue regeneration technologies and to the potential for more efficient application of cell- and scaffold-based technologies for osteoarthritis or other cartilage disorders.

Plastin 3 in health and disease: a matter of balance

For a long time, PLS3 (plastin 3, also known as T-plastin or fimbrin) has been considered a rather inconspicuous protein, involved in F-actin-binding and -bundling. However, in recent years, a plethora of discoveries have turned PLS3 into a highly interesting protein involved in many cellular processes, signaling pathways, and diseases. PLS3 is localized on the X-chromosome, but shows sex-specific, inter-individual and tissue-specific expression variability pointing towards skewed X-inactivation. PLS3 is expressed in all solid tissues but usually not in hematopoietic cells. When escaping X-inactivation, PLS3 triggers a plethora of different types of cancers. Elevated PLS3 levels are considered a prognostic biomarker for cancer and refractory response to therapies. When it is knocked out or mutated in humans and mice, it causes osteoporosis with bone fractures; it is the only protein involved in actin dynamics responsible for osteoporosis. Instead, when PLS3 is upregulated, it acts as a highly protective SMN-independent modifier in spinal muscular atrophy (SMA). Here, it seems to counteract reduced F-actin levels by restoring impaired endocytosis and disturbed calcium homeostasis caused by reduced SMN levels. In contrast, an upregulation of PLS3 on wild-type level might cause osteoarthritis. This emphasizes that the amount of PLS3 in our cells must be precisely balanced; both too much and too little can be detrimental. Actin-dynamics, regulated by PLS3 among others, are crucial in a lot of cellular processes including endocytosis, cell migration, axonal growth, neurotransmission, translation, and others. Also, PLS3 levels influence the infection with different bacteria, mycosis, and other pathogens.

Biomechanical-Based Protocol for in vitro Study of Cartilage Response to Cyclic Loading: A Proof-of-Concept in Knee Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (OA) is an evolving disease and a major cause of pain and impaired mobility. A deeper understanding of cartilage metabolism in response to loading is critical to achieve greater insight into OA mechanisms. While physiological joint loading helps maintain cartilage integrity, reduced or excessive loading have catabolic effects. The main scope of this study is to present an original methodology potentially capable to elucidate the effect of cyclic joint loading on cartilage metabolism, to identify mechanisms involved in preventing or slowing down OA progression, and to provide preliminary data on its application. In the proposed protocol, the combination of biomechanical data and medical imaging are integrated with molecular information about chondrocyte mechanotransduction and tissue homeostasis. The protocol appears to be flexible and suitable to analyze human OA knee cartilage explants, with different degrees of degeneration, undergoing ex vivo realistic cyclic joint loading estimated via gait analysis in patients simulating mild activities of daily living. The modulation of molecules involved in cartilage homeostasis, mechanotransduction, inflammation, pain and wound healing can be analyzed in chondrocytes and culture supernatants. A thorough analysis performed with the proposed methodology, combining in vivo functional biomechanical evaluations with ex vivo molecular assessments is expected to provide new insights on the beneficial effects of physiological loading and contribute to the design and optimization of non-pharmacological treatments limiting OA progression.

The potential role of mechanically sensitive ion channels in the physiology, injury, and repair of articular cartilage

Biomechanical factors play an extremely important role in regulating the function of articular chondrocytes. Understanding the mechanical factors that drive chondrocyte biological responses is at the heart of our interpretation of cascade events leading to changes in articular cartilage osteoarthritis. The mechanism by which mechanical load is transduced into intracellular signals that can regulate chondrocyte gene expression remains largely unknown. The mechanically sensitive ion channel (MSC) may be one of its specific mechanisms. This review focuses on four ion channels involved in the mechanotransduction of chondrocytes, exploring their properties and the main factors that activate the associated pathways. The upstream and downstream potential relationships between the protein pathways were also explored. The specific biophysical mechanism of the chondrocyte mechanical microenvironment is becoming the focus of research. Elucidating the mechanotransduction mechanism of MSC is essential for the research of biophysical pathogenesis and targeted drugs in cartilage injury-related diseases.

Talar OsteoPeriostic grafting from the Iliac Crest (TOPIC) for large medial talar osteochondral defects : Operative technique

OBJECTIVE

Provision of a natural scaffold, good quality cells, and growth factors in order to facilitate the replacement of the complete osteochondral unit with matching talar curvature for large medial primary and secondary osteochondral defects of the talus.

INDICATIONS

Symptomatic primary and secondary medial osteochondral defects of the talus not responding to conservative treatment; anterior-posterior or medial-lateral diameter >10 mm on computed tomography (CT); closed distal tibial physis in young patients.

CONTRAINDICATIONS

Tibiotalar osteoarthritis grade III; multiple osteochondral defects on the medial, central, and lateral talar dome; malignancy; active infectious ankle joint pathology.

SURGICAL TECHNIQUE

A medial distal tibial osteotomy is performed, after which the osteochondral defect is excised in toto from the talar dome. The recipient site is microdrilled in order to disrupt subchondral bone vessels. Then, the autograft is harvested from the ipsilateral iliac crest with an oscillating saw, after which the graft is adjusted to an exact fitting shape to match the extracted osteochondral defect and the talar morphology as well as curvature. The graft is implanted with a press-fit technique after which the osteotomy is reduced with two 3.5 mm lag screws and the incision layers are closed. In cases of a large osteotomy, an additional third tubular buttress plate is added, or a third screw at the apex of the osteotomy.

POSTOPERATIVE MANAGEMENT

Non-weight bearing cast for 6 weeks, followed by another 6 weeks with a walking boot. After 12 weeks, a CT scan is performed to assess consolidation of the osteotomy and the inserted autograft. The patient is referred to a physiotherapist.

RESULTS

Ten cases underwent the TOPIC procedure, and at 1 year follow-up all clinical scores improved. Radiological outcomes showed consolidation of all osteotomies and all inserted grafts showed consolidation. Complications included one spina iliaca anterior avulsion and one hypaesthesia of the saphenous nerve; in two patients the fixation screws of the medial malleolar osteotomy were removed.

Acteoside Counteracts Interleukin-1β-Induced Catabolic Processes through the Modulation of Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases and the NFκB Cellular Signaling Pathway

Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most common degenerative joint disease with chronic joint pain caused by progressive degeneration of articular cartilage at synovial joints. Acteoside, a caffeoylphenylethanoid glycoside, has various biological activities such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antioxidative, cytoprotective, and neuroprotective effect. Further, oral administration of acteoside at high dosage does not cause genotoxicity. Therefore, the aim of present study is to verify the anticatabolic effects of acteoside against osteoarthritis and its anticatabolic signaling pathway. Acteoside did not decrease the viabilities of mouse fibroblast L929 cells used as normal cells and primary rat chondrocytes. Acteoside counteracted the IL-1β-induced proteoglycan loss in the chondrocytes and articular cartilage through suppressing the expression and activation of cartilage-degrading enzyme such as matrix metalloproteinase- (MMP-) 13, MMP-1, and MMP-3. Furthermore, acteoside suppressed the expression of inflammatory mediators such as inducible nitric oxide synthase, cyclooxygenase-2, nitric oxide, and prostaglandin E2 in the primary rat chondrocytes treated with IL-1β. Subsequently, the expression of proinflammatory cytokines was decreased by acteoside in the primary rat chondrocytes treated with IL-1β. Moreover, acteoside suppressed not only the phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases in primary rat chondrocytes treated with IL-1β but also the translocation of NFκB from the cytosol to the nucleus through suppression of its phosphorylation. Oral administration of 5 and 10 mg/kg acteoside attenuated the progressive degeneration of articular cartilage in the osteoarthritic mouse model generated by destabilization of the medial meniscus. Our findings indicate that acteoside is a promising potential anticatabolic agent or supplement to attenuate or prevent progressive degeneration of articular cartilage.

Expression and Localization of Thrombospondins, Plastin 3, and STIM1 in Different Cartilage Compartments of the Osteoarthritic Varus Knee

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a multifactorial disease which is characterized by a change in the homeostasis of the extracellular matrix (ECM). The ECM is essential for the function of the articular cartilage and plays an important role in cartilage mechanotransduction. To provide a better understanding of the interaction between the ECM and the actin cytoskeleton, we investigated the localization and expression of the Ca²⁺-dependent proteins cartilage oligomeric matrix protein (COMP), thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1), plastin 3 (PLS3) and stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1). We investigated 16 patients who suffered from varus knee OA and performed a topographical analysis of the cartilage from the medial and lateral compartment of the proximal tibial plateau. In a varus knee, OA is more pronounced in the medial compared to the lateral compartment as a result of an overloading due to the malalignment. We detected a location-dependent staining of PLS3 and STIM1 in the articular cartilage tissue. The staining intensity for both proteins correlated with the degree of cartilage degeneration. The staining intensity of TSP-1 was clearly reduced in the cartilage of the more affected medial compartment, an observation that was confirmed in cartilage extracts by immunoblotting. The total amount of COMP was unchanged; however, slight changes were detected in the localization of the protein. Our results provide novel information on alterations in OA cartilage suggesting that Ca²⁺-dependent mechanotransduction between the ECM and the actin cytoskeleton might play an essential role in the pathomechanism of OA.

Chondrocyte Deformations Under Mild Dynamic Loading Conditions

Dynamic deformation of chondrocytes are associated with cell mechanotransduction and thus may offer a new understanding of the mechanobiology of articular cartilage. Despite extensive research on chondrocyte deformations for static conditions, work for dynamic conditions remains rare. However, it is these dynamic conditions that articular cartilage in joints are exposed to everyday, and that seem to promote biological signaling in chondrocytes. Therefore, the objective of this study was to develop an experimental technique to determine the in situ deformations of chondrocytes when the cartilage is dynamically compressed. We hypothesized that dynamic deformations of chondrocytes vastly differ from those observed under steady-state static strain conditions. Real-time chondrocyte geometry was reconstructed at 10, 15, and 20% compression during ramp compressions with 20% ultimate strain, applied at a strain rate of 0.2% s^-1, followed by stress relaxation. Dynamic compressive chondrocyte deformations were non-linear as a function of nominal strain, with large deformations in the early and small deformations in the late part of compression. Early compression (up to about 10%) was associated with chondrocyte volume loss, while late compression (> ~ 10%) was associated with cell deformation but minimal volume loss. Force continued to decrease for 5 min in the stress-relaxation phase, while chondrocyte shape/volume remained unaltered after the first minute of stress-relaxation.

Sensory neuropeptides are required for bone and cartilage homeostasis in a murine destabilization-induced osteoarthritis model

Numerous studies identified a role for the sensory neuropeptides substance P (SP) and alpha calcitonin gene-related peptide (αCGRP) in osteoarthritis (OA) pain behavior. Surprisingly, little attention has been paid on how their trophic effects on cartilage and bone cells might affect structural changes of bone and cartilage in OA pathology. Here, we sought to elucidate sensory neuropeptides influence on structural alterations of bone and cartilage during murine OA pathophysiology. OA was induced by destabilization of the medial meniscus (DMM) in the right knee joint of 12 weeks old male C57Bl/6J wildtype (WT) mice and mice either deficient for SP (tachykinin 1 (Tac1)-/-) or αCGRP. By OARSI histopathological grading we observed significant cartilage matrix degradation after DMM surgery in αCGRP-deficient mice after 4 weeks whereas Tac1-/- scores were not different to sham mice before 12 weeks after surgery. Indentation-type atomic force microscopy (IT-AFM) identified a strong superficial zone (SZ) cartilage phenotype in Tac1-/- Sham mice. Opposed to WT and αCGRP-/- mice, SZ cartilage of Tac1-/- mice softened 2 weeks after OA induction. In Tac1-/- DMM mice, bone volume to total volume ratio (BV/TV) increased significantly compared to the Tac1-/- Sham group, 2 weeks after surgery. WT mice had reduced BV/TV compared to αCGRP-/- and Tac1-/- mice after 12 weeks. Increased calcified cartilage thickness and medial condyle diameter were detected in the medial tibia of all groups 8 weeks after OA induction by nanoCT analysis. Meniscal ossification occurred in all OA groups, but was significantly stronger in the absence of neuropeptides. Increased serum concentration of the respective non-deleted neuropeptide was observed in both neuropeptide-deficient mice strains. Both neuropeptides protect from age-related bone structural changes under physiological conditions and SP additionally demonstrates an anabolic effect on bone structure preservation in a pathophysiological situation. Both neuropeptide deficient mice display an intrinsic structural cartilage matrix phenotype that might alter progression of cartilage degeneration in OA.

Detection of the Strains Induced in Murine Tibias by Ex Vivo Uniaxial Loading with Different Sensors

In this paper, the characterization of the main techniques and transducers employed to measure local and global strains induced by uniaxial loading of murine tibiae is presented. Micro strain gauges and digital image correlation (DIC) were tested to measure local strains, while a moving coil motor-based length transducer was employed to measure relative global shortening. Local strain is the crucial parameter to be measured when dealing with bone cell mechanotransduction, so we characterized these techniques in the experimental conditions known to activate cell mechanosensing in vivo. The experimental tests were performed using tibia samples excised from twenty-two C57BL/6 mice. To evaluate measurement repeatability we computed the standard deviation of ten repetitive compressions to the mean value. This value was lower than 3% for micro strain gauges, and in the range of 7%-10% for DIC and the length transducer. The coefficient of variation, i.e., the standard deviation to the mean value, was about 35% for strain gauges and the length transducer, and about 40% for DIC. These results provided a comprehensive characterization of three methodologies for local and global bone strain measurement, suggesting a possible field of application on the basis of their advantages and limitations.

Elevated Glucose Levels Preserve Glucose Uptake, Hyaluronan Production, and Low Glutamate Release Following Interleukin-1β Stimulation of Differentiated Chondrocytes

OBJECTIVE

Chondrocytes are responsible for remodeling and maintaining the structural and functional integrity of the cartilage extracellular matrix. Because of the absence of a vascular supply, chondrocytes survive in a relatively hypoxic environment and thus have limited regenerative capacity during conditions of cellular stress associated with inflammation and matrix degradation, such as osteoarthritis (OA). Glucose is essential to sustain chondrocyte metabolism and is a precursor for key matrix components. In this study, we investigated the importance of glucose as a fuel source for matrix repair during inflammation as well as the effect of glucose on inflammatory mediators associated with osteoarthritis.

DESIGN

To create an OA model, we used equine chondrocytes from 4 individual horses that were differentiated into cartilage pellets in vitro followed by interleukin-1β (IL-1β) stimulation for 72 hours. The cells were kept at either normoglycemic conditions (5 mM glucose) or supraphysiological glucose concentrations (25 mM glucose) during the stimulation with IL-1β.

RESULTS

We found that elevated glucose levels preserve glucose uptake, hyaluronan synthesis, and matrix integrity, as well as induce anti-inflammatory actions by maintaining low expression of Toll-like receptor-4 and low secretion of glutamate.

CONCLUSIONS

Adequate supply of glucose to chondrocytes during conditions of inflammation and matrix degradation interrupts the detrimental inflammatory cycle and induces synthesis of hyaluronan, thereby promoting cartilage repair.

Ex vivo physiological compression of human osteoarthritis cartilage modulates cellular and matrix components

Mechanical stimulation appears to play a key role in cartilage homeostasis maintenance, but it can also contribute to osteoarthritis (OA) pathogenesis. Accumulating evidence suggests that cartilage loading in the physiological range contributes to tissue integrity maintenance, whereas excessive or reduced loading have catabolic effects. However, how mechanical stimuli can regulate joint homeostasis is still not completely elucidated and few data are available on human cartilage. We aimed at investigating human OA cartilage response to ex vivo loading at physiological intensity. Cartilage explants from ten OA patients were subjected to ex vivo controlled compression, then recovered and used for gene and protein expression analysis of cartilage homeostasis markers. Compressed samples were compared to uncompressed ones in presence or without interleukin 1β (IL-1β) or interleukin 4 (IL-4). Cartilage explants compressed in combination with IL-4 treatment showed the best histological scores. Mechanical stimulation was able to significantly modify the expression of collagen type II (collagen 2), aggrecan, SOX9 transcription factor, cartilage oligomeric matrix protein (COMP), collagen degradation marker C2C and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Conversely, ADAMTS4 metallopeptidase, interleukin 4 receptor alpha (IL4Rα), chondroitin sulfate 846 epitope (CS846), procollagen type 2 C-propeptide (CPII) and glycosaminoglycans (GAG) appeared not modulated. Our data suggest that physiological compression of OA human cartilage modulates the inflammatory milieu by differently affecting the expression of components and homeostasis regulators of the cartilage extracellular matrix.

Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase Activating Polypeptide (PACAP) Reduces Oxidative and Mechanical Stress-Evoked Matrix Degradation in Chondrifying Cell Cultures

Pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) is an endogenous neuropeptide also secreted by non-neural cells, including chondrocytes. PACAP signaling is involved in the regulation of chondrogenesis, but little is known about its connection to matrix turnover during cartilage formation and under cellular stress in developing cartilage. We found that the expression and activity of hyaluronidases (Hyals), matrix metalloproteinases (MMP), and aggrecanase were permanent during the course of chondrogenesis in primary chicken micromass cell cultures, although protein levels changed daily, along with moderate and relatively constant enzymatic activity. Next, we investigated whether PACAP influences matrix destructing enzyme activity during oxidative and mechanical stress in chondrogenic cells. Exogenous PACAP lowered Hyals and aggrecanase expression and activity during cellular stress. Expression and activation of the majority of cartilage matrix specific MMPs such as MMP1, MMP7, MMP8, and MMP13, were also decreased by PACAP addition upon oxidative and mechanical stress, while the activity of MMP9 seemed not to be influenced by the neuropeptide. These results suggest that application of PACAP can help to preserve the integrity of the newly synthetized cartilage matrix via signaling mechanisms, which ultimately inhibit the activity of matrix destroying enzymes under cellular stress. It implies the prospect that application of PACAP can ameliorate articular cartilage destruction in joint diseases.

Activities of daily living influence tibial cartilage T1rho relaxation times

Quantitative T1rho magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can potentially help identify early-stage osteoarthritis (OA) by non-invasively assessing proteoglycan concentration in articular cartilage. T1rho relaxation times are negatively correlated with proteoglycan concentration. Cartilage compresses in response to load, resulting in water exudation, a relative increase in proteoglycan concentration, and a decrease in the corresponding T1rho relaxation times. To date, there is limited information on changes in cartilage composition resulting from daily activity. Therefore, the objective of this study was to quantify changes in tibial cartilage T1rho relaxation times in healthy human subjects following activities of daily living. It was hypothesized that water exudation throughout the day would lead to decreased T1rho relaxation times. Subjects underwent MR imaging in the morning and afternoon on the same day and were free to go about their normal activities between scans. Our findings confirmed the hypothesis that tibial cartilage T1rho relaxation times significantly decreased (by 7%) over the course of the day with loading, which is indicative of a relative increase in proteoglycan concentration. Additionally, baseline T1rho values varied with position within the cartilage, supporting a need for site-specific measurements of T1rho relaxation times. Understanding how loading alters the proteoglycan concentration in healthy cartilage may hold clinical significance pertaining to cartilage homeostasis and potentially help to elucidate a mechanism for OA development. These results also indicate that future studies using T1rho relaxation times as an indicator of cartilage health should control the loading history prior to image acquisition to ensure the appropriate interpretation of the data.

Repair of Damaged Articular Cartilage: Current Approaches and Future Directions

Articular hyaline cartilage is extensively hydrated, but it is neither innervated nor vascularized, and its low cell density allows only extremely limited self-renewal. Most clinical and research efforts currently focus on the restoration of cartilage damaged in connection with osteoarthritis or trauma. Here, we discuss current clinical approaches for repairing cartilage, as well as research approaches which are currently developing, and those under translation into clinical practice. We also describe potential future directions in this area, including tissue engineering based on scaffolding and/or stem cells as well as a combination of gene and cell therapy. Particular focus is placed on cell-based approaches and the potential of recently characterized chondro-progenitors; progress with induced pluripotent stem cells is also discussed. In this context, we also consider the ability of different types of stem cell to restore hyaline cartilage and the importance of mimicking the environment in vivo during cell expansion and differentiation into mature chondrocytes.

Heparanase is expressed in adult human osteoarthritic cartilage and drives catabolic responses in primary chondrocytes

OBJECTIVES

The chondrocytes' pericellular matrix acts as a mechanosensor by sequestering growth factors that are bound to heparan sulfate (HS) proteoglycans. Heparanase is the sole mammalian enzyme with HS degrading endoglycosidase activity. Here, we aimed to ascertain whether heparanase plays a role in modulating the anabolic or catabolic responses of human articular chondrocytes.

METHODS

Primary chondrocytes were incubated with pro-heparanase and catabolic and anabolic gene expression was analyzed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR). MMP13 enzymatic activity in the culture medium was measured with a specific fluorescent assay. Extracellular regulated kinase (ERK) phosphorylation was evaluated by Western blot. Human osteoarthritis (OA) cartilage was assessed for heparanase expression by reverse-transcriptase PCR, by Western blot and by a heparanase enzymatic activity assay.

RESULTS

Cultured chondrocytes rapidly associated with and activated pro-heparanase. Heparanase induced the catabolic genes MMP13 and ADAMTS4 and the secretion of active MMP13, and down-regulated the anabolic genes ACAN and COL2A1. PG545, a HS-mimetic, inhibited the effects of heparanase. Heparanase expression and enzymatic activity were demonstrated in adult human osteoarthritic cartilage. Heparanase induced ERK phosphorylation in cultured chondrocytes and this could be inhibited by PG545, by fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) neutralizing antibodies and by a FGF-receptor inhibitor.

CONCLUSIONS

Heparanase is active in osteoarthritic cartilage and induces catabolic responses in primary human chondrocytes. This response is due, at least in part, to the release of soluble growth factors such as FGF2.

A novel organ culture model of a joint for the evaluation of static and dynamic load on articular cartilage

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to create a novel ex vivo organ culture model for evaluating the effects of static and dynamic load on cartilage.

METHODS

The metatarsophalangeal joints of 12 fresh cadaveric bovine feet were skinned and dissected aseptically, and cultured for up to four weeks. Dynamic movement was applied using a custom-made machine on six joints, with the others cultured under static conditions. Chondrocyte viability and matrix glycosaminoglycan (GAG) content were evaluated by the cell viability probes, 5-chloromethylfluorescein diacetate (CMFDA) and propidium iodide (PI), and dimethylmethylene blue (DMMB) assay, respectively.

RESULTS

Chondrocyte viability in the static model decreased significantly from 89.9% (sd 2.5%) (Day 0) to 66.5% (sd 13.1%) (Day 28), 94.7% (sd 1.1%) to 80. 9% (sd 5.8%) and 80.1% (sd 3.0%) to 46.9% (sd 8.5%) in the superficial quarter, central half and deep quarter of cartilage, respectively (p < 0.001 in each zone; one-way analysis of variance). The GAG content decreased significantly from 6.01 μg/mg (sd 0.06) (Day 0) to 4.71 μg/mg (sd 0.06) (Day 28) (p < 0.001; one-way analysis of variance). However, with dynamic movement, chondrocyte viability and GAG content were maintained at the Day 0 level over the four-week period without a significant change (chondrocyte viability: 92.0% (sd 4.0%) (Day 0) to 89.9% (sd 0.2%) (Day 28), 93.1% (sd 1.5%) to 93.8% (sd 0.9%) and 85.6% (sd 0.8%) to 84.0% (sd 2.9%) in the three corresponding zones; GAG content: 6.18 μg/mg (sd 0.15) (Day 0) to 6.06 μg/mg (sd 0.09) (Day 28)).

CONCLUSION

Dynamic joint movement maintained chondrocyte viability and cartilage GAG content. This long-term whole joint culture model could be of value in providing a more natural and controlled platform for investigating the influence of joint movement on articular cartilage, and for evaluating novel therapies for cartilage repair.Cite this article: Y-C. Lin, A. C. Hall, A. H. R. W. Simpson. A novel organ culture model of a joint for the evaluation of static and dynamic load on articular cartilage. Bone Joint Res 2018;7:205-212. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.73.BJR-2017-0320.

Bone replaces articular cartilage in the rat knee joint after prolonged immobilization

BACKGROUND

Lost joint range of motion (ROM) is common in chronic osteoarthritis, alters regional weight-bearing across the articular surfaces, and contributes to loss of cartilage and bone alterations. Limited data exist on the regional effects on joints subjected to chronic losses of ROM.

OBJECTIVE

To characterize the regional replacement by bone as part of articular cartilage degeneration after prolonged immobilization.

METHODS

Eleven rat knees were rigidly-immobilized in flexion for 32weeks with contralateral and sham-operated (n=6) knees as controls. Sagittal medial tibial epiphysis histological sections assessed the anterior (non-weight-bearing), middle and posterior (both weight-bearing) regions. We quantified the distribution of collagen I, collagen II, cartilage thickness, glycosaminoglycan (GAG) staining, Mankin scoring, and subchondral bone plate cross-sectional area. Using immunohistochemistry (IHC), we visualized blood vessels, osteoblasts, and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs).

RESULTS

Immobilized cartilage had increased collagen I content in the anterior tibial region with picrosirius red staining (immobilized=61±20%; contralateral=43±12%, p=0.033; sham=20±10%, p=0.028) and collagen I IHC (immobilized=40±10%; contralateral=11±4%, p=0.003; sham=5±3%, p=0.043). Articular cartilage was thinner anteriorly (18±30μm) in immobilized knees versus contralateral (124±40μm, p<0.001) and sham (125±43μm, p=0.043). GAG staining covered 2±4% of the anterior articular area in immobilized knees versus 28±12% contralaterally (p=0.003) and 26±7% in sham (p=0.043). Mankin scores in immobilized knees were 4.7±1.7 versus 0.2±0.4 and 0±0 for contralateral and sham (p=0.003, p=0.042), respectively. The trabecular bone plate area of anterior and posterior regions showed relative loss of cross-sectional area in immobilized knees compared to controls (immobilized/contralateral area ratios of 0.67 and 0.46 respectively, both p=0.003), while the area in the middle region was preserved. Movat's pentachrome stain and CD31 staining showed chondral vascular ingrowth from subchondral bone. Osteocalcin and CD90 MSC staining were decreased in immobilized knees versus contralateral (p=0.003, p=0.036 respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Bony replacement characterizes articular cartilage degeneration of knees immobilized for 32weeks in the anterior, non-weight bearing region of the tibia. Replacement of cartilage by bone may have been mediated by chondral vascularization, suggesting irreversible changes. These findings stress the importance of weight-bearing and joint motion to maintain cartilage structure.

Primary cilia: Cell and molecular mechanosensors directing whole tissue function

Primary cilia are immotile, microtubule-based organelles extending from the surface of nearly every mammalian cell. Mechanical stimulation causes deflection of the primary cilium, initiating downstream signaling cascades to the rest of the cell. The cilium forms a unique subcellular microdomain, and defects in ciliary protein composition or physical structure have been associated with a myriad of human pathologies. In this review, we discuss the importance of ciliary mechanotransduction at the cell and tissue level, and how furthering our molecular understanding of primary cilia mechanobiology may lead to therapeutic strategies to treat human diseases.

Viability and Tissue Quality of Cartilage Flaps From Patients With Femoroacetabular Hip Impingement: A Matched-Control Comparison

Background:

Chondrolabral damage is commonly observed in patients with cam-type femoroacetabular impingement (FAI). Chondral flap reattachment has recently been proposed as a possible preservation technique.

Purpose/Hypothesis:

The purpose of this study was to determine the viability and tissue quality of chondral flaps from patients with FAI at the time of arthroscopy. It was hypothesized that chondral flaps from patients with cam lesions of the hip would exhibit less viability and greater tissue degeneration than would those of a matched control group.

Study Design:

Cohort study; Level of evidence, 2.

Methods:

Patients with cam-type FAI who were treated with hip arthroscopy between 2014 and 2016 were asked to participate in this study. The cartilage lesions were localized and classified intraoperatively according to Beck classification. A chondral flap (study group) and a cartilage sample (control group) were obtained from each patient for histologic evaluation. Cellular viability and tissue quality were examined and compared in both groups. Cellular viability was determined with live/dead staining, and tissue quality was evaluated using safranin O/fast green, hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining, and immunohistochemistry for collagen II. Osteoarthritis Research Society International (OARSI) grading was used for quality assessment, and Image J software was used to calculate the percentage of tissue viability and Col II stain.

Results:

A total of 10 male patients with a mean age of 38.4 years (range, 30-55 years) were enrolled. All chondral flaps were classified as Beck grade 4. The mean cellular viability of the chondral flaps was reduced (54.6% ± 25.6%), and they were found to be degenerated (OARSI grade, 4 ± 1.27). Control samples also had reduced viability (38.8% ± 30.3%) and were degenerative (OARSI grade, 3.5 ± 1.38). There was no statistically significant intergroup difference for viability (P = .203) or OARSI grade (P = .645), nor was there an intragroup correlation between viability and OARSI grade (P > .05). A significant negative correlation (r = −0.9, P = .035) was found between OARSI grade and collagen II percentage scale in 5 selected samples.

Conclusion:

Despite appearing normal macroscopically, the chondral flaps from patients with cam-type FAI displayed loss of viability and tissue degeneration. In addition, control samples obtained away from the injury area also displayed cartilage damage and degeneration. Careful consideration should be taken when attempting to reattach the chondral flap.

Innovative application of Cox Flexion Distraction Decompression to the knee: a retrospective case series

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study is to introduce the application of Cox flexion distraction decompression as an innovative approach to treating knee pain and osteoarthritis.

METHODS

Six months of clinical files from one chiropractic practice were retrospectively screened for patients who had been treated for knee pain. Twenty-five patients met the criteria for inclusion. The treatment provided was Cox flexion distraction decompression. Pre-treatment and post-treatment visual analog pain scales (VAS) were used to measure the results. In total, eight patients presented with acute knee pain (less than three months' duration) and 18 patients presented with chronic knee pain (greater than three months) including two patients with continued knee pain after prosthetic replacement surgery.

RESULTS

For all 25 patients, a change was observed in the mean VAS scores from 7.7 to 1.8. The mean number of treatments was 5.3 over an average of 3.0 weeks. Acute patient mean VAS scores dropped from 8.1 to 1.1 within 4.8 treatments over 2.4 weeks. Chronic patient mean VAS scores dropped from 7.5 to 2.2 within 5.4 treatments over 3.3 weeks. No adverse events were reported.

CONCLUSION

This study showed clinical improvement in patients with knee pain who were managed with Cox flexion distraction decompression applied to the knee.

Systems approaches in osteoarthritis: Identifying routes to novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies

Systems orientated research offers the possibility of identifying novel therapeutic targets and relevant diagnostic markers for complex diseases such as osteoarthritis. This review demonstrates that the osteoarthritis research community has been slow to incorporate systems orientated approaches into research studies, although a number of key studies reveal novel insights into the regulatory mechanisms that contribute both to joint tissue homeostasis and its dysfunction. The review introduces both top-down and bottom-up approaches employed in the study of osteoarthritis. A holistic and multiscale approach, where clinical measurements may predict dysregulation and progression of joint degeneration, should be a key objective in future research. The review concludes with suggestions for further research and emerging trends not least of which is the coupled development of diagnostic tests and therapeutics as part of a concerted effort by the osteoarthritis research community to meet clinical needs. © 2017 The Authors. Journal of Orthopaedic Research Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of Orthopaedic Research Society. J Orthop Res 35:1573-1588, 2017.

Selenium Reduces Early Signs of Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha-Induced Meniscal Tissue Degradation

Meniscal integrity is a prerequisite for sustained knee joint health and prevention of meniscal degeneration is a main research goal. Cartilage-protective effects of selenium have been described, but little is known about the impact on the meniscus. We therefore investigated the influence of sodium selenite on meniscal explants under tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα)-stimulated proinflammatory conditions. Meniscal explant disks (3 mm diameter × 1 mm thickness) were isolated from 2-year-old cattle and incubated with TNFα (10 ng/ml) and sodium selenite (low dose, LoD 6.7 ng/ml as being found in Insulin-Transferrin-Selenium medium supplements, ITS; medium-dose, MeD 40 ng/ml described as physiological synovial concentration; high dose, HiD 100 ng/ml described as optimal serum concentration). After 3 days of culture glycosaminoglycan (GAG) release (DMMB assay), nitric oxide (NO) production (Griess assay), gene expression of matrix-degrading enzymes (quantitative RT-PCR), and apoptosis rate were determined. TNFα led to a significant raise of GAG release and NO production. LoD and MeD selenite significantly reduced the TNFα-induced GAG release (by 83, 55 %, respectively), NO production (by 59, 40 %, respectively), and apoptosis (by 68, 39 %, respectively). LoD and MeD selenite showed a tendency to reduce the TNFα-mediated increase of inducible NO-synthase (iNOS) levels, LoD selenite furthermore matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-3 transcription levels and a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs (ADAMTS)-4 levels. LoD and less pronounced MeD selenite show a substantial impact on the early meniscal inflammatory response. To our knowledge this is the first study showing the protective influence of selenium on meniscal tissue maintenance. To understand the superior potency of low-dose selenium on molecular level future studies are needed.

Whole-body vibration of mice induces articular cartilage degeneration with minimal changes in subchondral bone

OBJECTIVE

Low-amplitude, high-frequency whole-body vibration (WBV) has been adopted for the treatment of musculoskeletal diseases including osteoarthritis (OA); however, there is limited knowledge of the direct effects of vibration on joint tissues. Our recent studies revealed striking damage to the knee joint following exposure of mice to WBV. The current study examined the effects of WBV on specific compartments of the murine tibiofemoral joint over 8 weeks, including microarchitecture of the tibia, to understand the mechanisms associated with WBV-induced joint damage.

DESIGN

Ten-week-old male CD-1 mice were exposed to WBV (45 Hz, 0.3 g peak acceleration; 30 min/day, 5 days/week) for 4 weeks, 8 weeks, or 4 weeks WBV followed by 4 weeks recovery. The knee joint was evaluated histologically for tissue damage. Architecture of the subchondral bone plate, subchondral trabecular bone, primary and secondary spongiosa of the tibia was assessed using micro-CT.

RESULTS

Meniscal tears and focal articular cartilage damage were induced by WBV; the extent of damage increased between 4 and 8-week exposures to WBV. WBV did not alter the subchondral bone plate, or trabecular bone of the tibial spongiosa; however, a transient increase was detected in the subchondral trabecular bone volume and density.

CONCLUSIONS

The lack of WBV-induced changes in the underlying subchondral bone suggests that damage to the articular cartilage may be secondary to the meniscal injury we detected. Our findings underscore the need for further studies to assess the safety of WBV in the human population to avoid long-term joint damage.

Wnt7a Inhibits IL-1β Induced Catabolic Gene Expression and Prevents Articular Cartilage Damage in Experimental Osteoarthritis

Wnt7a is a protein that plays a critical role in skeletal development. However, its effect on cartilage homeostasis under pathological conditions is not known. In this study, we found a unique inverse correlation between Wnt7a gene expression and that of MMP and IL-1β in individual human OA cartilage specimens. Upon ectopic expression in primary human articular chondrocytes, Wnt7a inhibited IL-1β-induced MMP and iNOS gene expression. Western blot analysis indicated that Wnt7a induced both canonical Wnt signaling and NFAT and Akt non-canonical signaling. Interestingly, inhibiting the canonical and Akt pathway did not affect Wnt7a activity. However, inhibiting the NFAT pathway impaired Wnt7a’s ability to inhibit MMP expression, suggesting that Wnt7a requires NFAT signaling to exert this function. In vivo, intraarticular injection of lentiviral Wnt7a strongly attenuated articular cartilage damage induced by destabilization of the medial meniscus (DMM) OA-inducing surgery in mice. Consistently, Wnt7a also inhibited the progressive increase of joint MMP activity in DMM animals. These results indicate that Wnt7a signaling inhibits inflammatory stimuli-induced catabolic gene expression in human articular chondrocytes and is sufficient to attenuate MMP activities and promote joint cartilage integrity in mouse experimental OA, demonstrating a novel effect of Wnt7a on regulating OA pathogenesis.

Unfolding of membrane ruffles of in situ chondrocytes under compressive loads

Impact loading results in chondrocyte death. Previous studies implicated high tensile strain rates in chondrocyte membranes as the cause of impact-induced cell deaths. However, this hypothesis relies on the untested assumption that chondrocyte membranes unfold in vivo during physiological tissue compression, but do not unfold during impact loading. Although membrane unfolding has been observed in isolated chondrocytes during osmotically induced swelling and mechanical compression, it is not known if membrane unfolding also occurs in chondrocytes embedded in their natural extracellular matrix. This study was aimed at quantifying changes in membrane morphology of in situ superficial zone chondrocytes during slow physiological cartilage compression. Bovine cartilage-bone explants were loaded at 5 μm/s to nominal compressive strains ranging from 0% to 50%. After holding the final strains for 45 min, the loaded cartilage was chemically pre-fixed for 12 h. The cartilage layer was post-processed for visualization of cell ultrastructure using electron microscopy. The changes in membrane morphology in superficial zone cells were quantified from planar electron micrographs by measuring the roughness and the complexity of the cell surfaces. Qualitatively, the cell surface ruffles that existed before loading disappeared when cartilage was loaded. Quantitatively, the roughness and complexity of cell surfaces decreased with increasing load magnitudes, suggesting a load-dependent use of membrane reservoirs. Chondrocyte membranes unfold in a load-dependent manner when cartilage is compressed. Under physiologically meaningful loading conditions, the cells likely expand their surface through unfolding of the membrane ruffles, and therefore avoid direct stretch of the cell membrane. © 2016 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 35:304-310, 2017.

Tribbles and arthritis: what are the links?

The pseudo-kinase family of tribbles (TRIB) proteins has been linked to a variety of cell signalling pathways and appears to have functionally divergent roles with respect to intracellular protein degradation and the ability to regulate signal transduction pathways. In the arthritides, inflammation and a wide variety of pro-inflammatory pathways have been implicated to drive the cartilage destruction and consequent disability associated with both rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and osteoarthritis (OA). Despite burgeoning evidence linking the TRIB to inflammation-related pathologies such as diabetes, multiple sclerosis and cancer, very little is known about their roles in arthritis. The present review discusses current knowledge of the impact of TRIB on pro-inflammatory cellular mechanisms and pathways known to be important in the pathogenesis of RA and OA.

Strain-induced mechanotransduction through primary cilia, extracellular ATP, purinergic calcium signaling, and ERK1/2 transactivates CITED2 and downregulates MMP-1 and MMP-13 gene expression in chondrocytes

OBJECTIVE

To determine the strain-induced signaling pathways involved in regulating the transactivation of the transcription regulator Cbp/p300 Interacting Transactivator with ED-rich tail 2 (CITED2) and downstream targets in chondrocytes.

METHODS

Primary human chondrocytes or C28/I2 chondrocytic cells were subjected to various strain regimes. C57BL/6 mice were subjected to treadmill running. Loss-of-function was carried out using siRNA or inhibitors specific for targeted molecules. mRNA levels were assayed by RT-qPCR, and proteins by western blotting, immunofluorescence, and/or immunohistochemical staining. CITED2 promoter activity was assayed in chondrocytes using wild-type or mutant constructs.

RESULTS

Cyclic strain at 5%, 1 Hz induced CITED2 expression and suppressed expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-1 and -13 at the messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein levels in human chondrocytes. Abolishing primary cilia through knockdown of intraflagellar transport protein (IFT88) attenuated CITED2 gene expression and decreased protein levels. Similar effects were observed with inhibitors of extracellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP) or P2 purinergic receptors, or antagonists of Ca(2+) signaling. Knockdown of IFT88 in articular chondrocytes in vivo diminished treadmill induced-CITED2 expression and upregulated MMPs. Knockdown of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)1α, specificity protein 1 (Sp1), or deletion of the shear stress response element (SSRE) in the CITED2 promoter limited cyclic strain-induced transactivation of CITED2. However, the strain induced-transactivation of CITED2 was abolished only on knockdown of HIF1α, Sp1, and SSRE or by loss-of-function of IFT88 or extracellular-signal-regulated kinases (ERK)1/2.

CONCLUSIONS

CITED2 transactivation is a critical event in signaling generated by strain and transduced by primary cilia, extracellular ATP, P2 purinergic receptors, and Ca(2+) signaling. Strain-induced CITED2 transactivation requires HIF1α, Sp1, and an intact SSRE and leads to the downregulation of MMPs such as MMP-1 and MMP-13.

Understanding Mechanobiology: Physical Therapists as a Force in Mechanotherapy and Musculoskeletal Regenerative Rehabilitation

Achieving functional restoration of diseased or injured tissues is the ultimate goal of both regenerative medicine approaches and physical therapy interventions. Proper integration and healing of the surrogate cells, tissues, or organs introduced using regenerative medicine techniques are often dependent on the co-introduction of therapeutic physical stimuli. Thus, regenerative rehabilitation represents a collaborative approach whereby rehabilitation specialists, basic scientists, physicians, and surgeons work closely to enhance tissue restoration by creating tailored rehabilitation treatments. One of the primary treatment regimens that physical therapists use to promote tissue healing is the introduction of mechanical forces, or mechanotherapies. These mechanotherapies in regenerative rehabilitation activate specific biological responses in musculoskeletal tissues to enhance the integration, healing, and restorative capacity of implanted cells, tissues, or synthetic scaffolds. To become future leaders in the field of regenerative rehabilitation, physical therapists must understand the principles of mechanobiology and how mechanotherapies augment tissue responses. This perspective article provides an overview of mechanotherapy and discusses how mechanical signals are transmitted at the tissue, cellular, and molecular levels. The synergistic effects of physical interventions and pharmacological agents also are discussed. The goals are to highlight the critical importance of mechanical signals on biological tissue healing and to emphasize the need for collaboration within the field of regenerative rehabilitation. As this field continues to emerge, physical therapists are poised to provide a critical contribution by integrating mechanotherapies with regenerative medicine to restore musculoskeletal function.

Purinergic signalling-evoked intracellular Ca(2+) concentration changes in the regulation of chondrogenesis and skeletal muscle formation

It is now widely recognised that changes of the intracellular calcium concentration have deep impact on the differentiation of various non-excitable cells including the elements of the vertebrate skeleton. It has become evident that purinergic signalling is one of the most ancient cellular mechanisms that can cause such alterations in the intracellular Ca(2+)-homeostasis, which are precisely set either spatially or temporally. Purinergic signalling is believed to regulate intracellular Ca(2+)-concentration of developing cartilage and skeletal muscle cells and suggested to play roles in the modulation of various cellular functions. This idea is supported by the fact that pluripotent mesenchymal cells, chondroprogenitors or muscle precursors, as well as mature chondrocytes all are capable of releasing ectonucleotides, and express various types of purinoreceptors and ectonucleotidases. The presence of the basic components of purinergic signalling proves that cells of the chondrogenic lineage can utilise this mechanism for modulating their intracellular Ca(2+) concentration independently from the surrounding skeletal muscle and bone tissues, which are well known to release ectopurines during development and mechanical stress. In this review, we summarize accumulating experimental evidence supporting the importance of purinergic signalling in the regulation of chondrogenesis and during skeletal muscle formation.

CD146+ mesenchymal stem cells display greater therapeutic potential than CD146- cells for treating collagen-induced arthritis in mice

Background

The characteristics and therapeutic potential of subtypes of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are largely unknown. In this study, CD146⁺ and CD146^– MSCs were separated from human umbilical cords, and their effects on regulatory T cells (Tregs), Th17 cells, chondrogenesis, and osteogenesis were investigated.

Methods

Flow cytometry was used to quantify IL-6 and TGF-β1 expressed on CD146⁺ and CD146^– MSCs. The therapeutic potential of both subpopulations was determined by measuring the clinical score and joint histology after intra-articular (IA) transfer of the cells into mice with collagen-induced arthritis (CIA).

Results

Compared with CD146^– MSCs, CD146⁺ MSCs expressed less IL-6 and had a significantly greater effect on chondrogenesis. After T lymphocyte activation, Th17 cells were activated when exposed to CD146^– cells but not when exposed to CD146⁺ cells both in vitro and in vivo. IA injection of CD146⁺ MSCs attenuated the progression of CIA. Immunohistochemistry showed that only HLA-A⁺ CD146⁺ cells were detected in the cartilage of CIA mice. These cells may help preserve proteoglycan expression.

Conclusions

This study suggests that CD146⁺ cells have greater potency than CD146^– cells for cartilage protection and can suppress Th17 cell activation. These data suggest a potential therapeutic application for CD146⁺ cells in treating inflammatory arthritis.

Cartilage regeneration for treatment of osteoarthritis: a paradigm for nonsurgical intervention

Osteoarthritis (OA) is associated with articular cartilage abnormalities and affects people of older age: preventative or therapeutic treatment measures for OA and related articular cartilage disorders remain challenging. In this perspective review, we have integrated multiple biological, morphological, developmental, stem cell and homeostasis concepts of articular cartilage to develop a paradigm for cartilage regeneration. OA is conceptually defined as an injury of cartilage that initiates chondrocyte activation, expression of proteases and growth factor release from the matrix. This regenerative process results in the local activation of inflammatory response genes in cartilage without migration of inflammatory cells or angiogenesis. The end results are catabolic and anabolic responses, and it is the balance between these two outcomes that controls remodelling of the matrix and regeneration. A tantalizing clinical clue for cartilage regrowth in OA joints has been observed in surgically created joint distraction. We hypothesize that cartilage growth in these distracted joints may have a biological connection with the size of organs and regeneration. Therefore we propose a novel, practical and nonsurgical intervention to validate the role of distraction in cartilage regeneration in OA. The approach permits normal wake-up activity while during sleep; the index knee is subjected to distraction with a pull traction device. Comparison of follow-up magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) at 3 and 6 months of therapy to those taken before therapy will provide much-needed objective evidence for the use of this mode of therapy for OA. We suggest that the paradigm presented here merits investigation for treatment of OA in knee joints.