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Berni M, Marchiori G, Baleani M, Giavaresi G, Lopomo NF. Biomechanics of the Human Osteochondral Unit: A Systematic Review. Materials (Basel) 2024; 17:1698. [PMID: 38612211 PMCID: PMC11012636 DOI: 10.3390/ma17071698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2023] [Revised: 03/17/2024] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
The damping system ensured by the osteochondral (OC) unit is essential to deploy the forces generated within load-bearing joints during locomotion, allowing furthermore low-friction sliding motion between bone segments. The OC unit is a multi-layer structure including articular cartilage, as well as subchondral and trabecular bone. The interplay between the OC tissues is essential in maintaining the joint functionality; altered loading patterns can trigger biological processes that could lead to degenerative joint diseases like osteoarthritis. Currently, no effective treatments are available to avoid degeneration beyond tissues' recovery capabilities. A thorough comprehension on the mechanical behaviour of the OC unit is essential to (i) soundly elucidate its overall response to intra-articular loads for developing diagnostic tools capable of detecting non-physiological strain levels, (ii) properly evaluate the efficacy of innovative treatments in restoring physiological strain levels, and (iii) optimize regenerative medicine approaches as potential and less-invasive alternatives to arthroplasty when irreversible damage has occurred. Therefore, the leading aim of this review was to provide an overview of the state-of-the-art-up to 2022-about the mechanical behaviour of the OC unit. A systematic search is performed, according to PRISMA standards, by focusing on studies that experimentally assess the human lower-limb joints' OC tissues. A multi-criteria decision-making method is proposed to quantitatively evaluate eligible studies, in order to highlight only the insights retrieved through sound and robust approaches. This review revealed that studies on human lower limbs are focusing on the knee and articular cartilage, while hip and trabecular bone studies are declining, and the ankle and subchondral bone are poorly investigated. Compression and indentation are the most common experimental techniques studying the mechanical behaviour of the OC tissues, with indentation also being able to provide information at the micro- and nanoscales. While a certain comparability among studies was highlighted, none of the identified testing protocols are currently recognised as standard for any of the OC tissues. The fibril-network-reinforced poro-viscoelastic constitutive model has become common for describing the response of the articular cartilage, while the models describing the mechanical behaviour of mineralised tissues are usually simpler (i.e., linear elastic, elasto-plastic). Most advanced studies have tested and modelled multiple tissues of the same OC unit but have done so individually rather than through integrated approaches. Therefore, efforts should be made in simultaneously evaluating the comprehensive response of the OC unit to intra-articular loads and the interplay between the OC tissues. In this regard, a multidisciplinary approach combining complementary techniques, e.g., full-field imaging, mechanical testing, and computational approaches, should be implemented and validated. Furthermore, the next challenge entails transferring this assessment to a non-invasive approach, allowing its application in vivo, in order to increase its diagnostic and prognostic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Berni
- Laboratorio di Tecnologia Medica, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, Via di Barbiano 1/10, 40136 Bologna, Italy; (M.B.); (M.B.)
| | - Gregorio Marchiori
- Scienze e Tecnologie Chirurgiche, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, Via di Barbiano 1/10, 40136 Bologna, Italy;
| | - Massimiliano Baleani
- Laboratorio di Tecnologia Medica, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, Via di Barbiano 1/10, 40136 Bologna, Italy; (M.B.); (M.B.)
| | - Gianluca Giavaresi
- Scienze e Tecnologie Chirurgiche, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, Via di Barbiano 1/10, 40136 Bologna, Italy;
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Scalzone A, Cerqueni G, Wang XN, Ferreira-Duarte A, Dalgarno K, Mattioli-Belmonte M, Gentile P. An In Vitro Engineered Osteochondral Model as Tool to Study Osteoarthritis Environment. Adv Healthc Mater 2023; 12:e2202030. [PMID: 36300892 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202202030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Revised: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Osteoarthritis (OA) is a joint degenerative pathology characterized by mechanical and inflammatory damages affecting synovium, articular cartilage (AC), and subchondral bone (SB). Several in vitro, in vivo, and ex vivo models are developed to study OA, but to date the identification of specific pharmacological targets seems to be hindered by the lack of models with predictive capabilities. This study reports the development of a biomimetic in vitro model of AC and SB interface. Gellan gum methacrylated and chondroitin sulfate/dopamine hydrogels are used for the AC portion, whereas polylactic acid functionalized with gelatin and nanohydroxyapatite for the SB. The physiological behavior of immortalized stem cells (Y201s) and Y201s differentiated in chondrocytes (Y201-Cs), respectively, for the SB and AC, is demonstrated over 21 days of culture in vitro in healthy and pathological conditions, whilst modeling the onset of cytokines-induced OA. The key metrics are: lower glycosaminoglycans production and increased calcification given by a higher Collagen X content, in the AC deep layer; higher expression of pro-angiogenic factor (vegf) and decreased expression of osteogenic markers (coll1, spp1, runx2) in the SB. This novel approach provides a new tool for studying the development and progression of OA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annachiara Scalzone
- School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK
| | - Giorgia Cerqueni
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Sciences (DISCLIMO), Università Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, 60126, Italy
| | - Xiao-Nong Wang
- Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK
| | - Ana Ferreira-Duarte
- School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK
| | - Kenny Dalgarno
- School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK
| | - Monica Mattioli-Belmonte
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Sciences (DISCLIMO), Università Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, 60126, Italy
| | - Piergiorgio Gentile
- School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK
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Li Z, Zheng X, Wang Y, Tao T, Wang Z, Yuan L, Han B. The Biomimetics of Mg(2+)-Concentration-Resolved Microenvironment for Bone and Cartilage Repairing Materials Design. Biomimetics (Basel) 2022; 7. [PMID: 36546928 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics7040227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2022] [Revised: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 12/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
With the increase in population aging, the tendency of osteochondral injury will be accelerated, and repairing materials are increasingly needed for the optimization of the regenerative processes in bone and cartilage recovery. The local environment of the injury sites and the deficiency of Mg2+ retards the repairing period via inhibiting the progenitor osteogenesis and chondrogenesis cells’ recruitment, proliferation, and differentiation, which results in the sluggish progress in the osteochondral repairing materials design. In this article, we elucidate the Mg2+-concentration specified effect on the cell proliferation, osteochondral gene expression, and differentiation of modeling chondrocytes (extracted from New Zealand white rabbit) and osteoblasts (MC3T3-E1). The concentration of Mg2+ in the culture medium affects the proliferation, chondrogenesis, and osteogenesis: (i) Appropriate concentrations of Mg2+ promote the proliferation of chondrocytes (1.25−10.0 mM) and MC3T3-E1 cells (2.5−30.0 mM); (ii) the optimal concentration of Mg2+ that promotes the gene expression of noncalcified cartilage is 15 mM, calcified cartilage 10 mM, and subchondral bone 5 mM, respectively; (iii) overdosed Mg2+ leads to the inhibition of cell activity for either chondrocytes (>20 mM) or osteoblasts (>30 mM). The biomimetic elucidation for orchestrating the allocation of gradient concentration of Mg2+ in accordance of the physiological condition is crucial for designing the accurate microenvironment in osteochondral injury defects for optimization of bone and cartilage repairing materials in the future.
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Berni M, Erani P, Lopomo NF, Baleani M. Optimization of In Situ Indentation Protocol to Map the Mechanical Properties of Articular Cartilage. Materials (Basel) 2022; 15:6425. [PMID: 36143736 PMCID: PMC9505484 DOI: 10.3390/ma15186425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Revised: 08/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Tissue engineering aims at developing complex composite scaffolds for articular cartilage repair. These scaffolds must exhibit a mechanical behavior similar to the whole osteochondral unit. In situ spherical indentation allows us to map the mechanical behavior of articular cartilage, avoiding removal of the underlying bone tissue. Little is known about the impact of grid spacing, indenter diameter, and induced deformation on the cartilage response to indentation. We investigated the impact of grid spacing (range: a to 3a, where a is the radius of the contact area between cartilage and indenter), indenter diameter (range: 1 to 8 mm), and deformation induced by indentation (constant indentation depth versus constant nominal deformation) on cartilage response. The bias induced by indentations performed in adjacent grid points was minimized with a 3a grid spacing. The cartilage response was indenter-dependent for diameters ranging between 1 and 6 mm with a nominal deformation of 15%. No significant differences were found using 6 mm and 8 mm indenters. Six mm and 8 mm indenters were used to map human articular cartilage with a grid spacing equal to 3a. Instantaneous elastic modulus E0 was calculated for constant indentation depth and constant nominal deformation. E0 value distribution did not change significantly by switching the two indenters, while dispersion decreased by 5-6% when a constant nominal deformation was applied. Such an approach was able to discriminate changes in tissue response due to doubling the indentation rate. The proposed procedure seems to reduce data dispersion and properly determine cartilage mechanical properties to be compared with those of complex composite scaffolds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Berni
- Laboratorio di Tecnologia Medica, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, 40136 Bologna, Italy
| | - Paolo Erani
- Laboratorio di Tecnologia Medica, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, 40136 Bologna, Italy
| | | | - Massimiliano Baleani
- Laboratorio di Tecnologia Medica, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, 40136 Bologna, Italy
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Santos-Beato P, Midha S, Pitsillides AA, Miller A, Torii R, Kalaskar DM. Biofabrication of the osteochondral unit and its applications: Current and future directions for 3D bioprinting. J Tissue Eng 2022; 13:20417314221133480. [PMID: 36386465 PMCID: PMC9643769 DOI: 10.1177/20417314221133480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/30/2022] [Indexed: 07/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple prevalent diseases, such as osteoarthritis (OA), for which there is no cure or full understanding, affect the osteochondral unit; a complex interface tissue whose architecture, mechanical nature and physiological characteristics are still yet to be successfully reproduced in vitro. Although there have been multiple tissue engineering-based approaches to recapitulate the three dimensional (3D) structural complexity of the osteochondral unit, there are various aspects that still need to be improved. This review presents the different pre-requisites necessary to develop a human osteochondral unit construct and focuses on 3D bioprinting as a promising manufacturing technique. Examples of 3D bioprinted osteochondral tissues are reviewed, focusing on the most used bioinks, chosen cell types and growth factors. Further information regarding the applications of these 3D bioprinted tissues in the fields of disease modelling, drug testing and implantation is presented. Finally, special attention is given to the limitations that currently hold back these 3D bioprinted tissues from being used as models to investigate diseases such as OA. Information regarding improvements needed in bioink development, bioreactor use, vascularisation and inclusion of additional tissues to further complete an OA disease model, are presented. Overall, this review gives an overview of the evolution in 3D bioprinting of the osteochondral unit and its applications, as well as further illustrating limitations and improvements that could be performed explicitly for disease modelling.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Swati Midha
- Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology,
University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | | | - Aline Miller
- Department of Chemical Engineering,
University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Ryo Torii
- Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University College London, London, UK
| | - Deepak M Kalaskar
- Institute of Orthopaedics and
Musculoskeletal Science, Division of Surgery & Interventional Science,
University College London (UCL), UK
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Beck A, Wood D, Vertullo CJ, Ebert J, Janes G, Sullivan M, Zheng MH. Morphological Assessment of MACI Grafts in Patients with Revision Surgery and Total Joint Arthroplasty. Cartilage 2021; 13:526S-539S. [PMID: 31793330 PMCID: PMC8808925 DOI: 10.1177/1947603519890754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To compare the histological and immunohistochemical characteristics of matrix-assisted chondrocyte implantation (MACI) grafts between patients with revision surgery and patients with total joint arthroplasty. METHODS Biopsies of MACI grafts from patients with revision and total joint arthroplasty. The graft tissue characteristics and subchondral bone were examined by qualitative histology, ICRS (International Cartilage Repair Society) II scoring and semiquantitative immunohistochemistry using antibodies specific to type I and type II collagen. RESULTS A total of 31 biopsies were available, 10 undergoing total knee arthroplasty (TKA) and 21 patients undergoing revision surgery. Patients in the clinically failed group were significantly older (46.3 years) than patients in the revision group (36.6 years) (P = 0.007). Histologically, the predominant tissue in both groups was of fibrocartilaginous nature, although a higher percentage of specimens in the revision group contained a hyaline-like repair tissue. The percentages of type I collagen (52.9% and 61.0%) and type II collagen (66.3% and 42.2%) were not significantly different between clinically failed and revised MACI, respectively. The talar dome contained the best and patella the worst repair tissue. Subchondral bone pathology was present in all clinically failed patients and consisted of bone marrow lesions, including edema, necrosis and fibrosis, intralesional osteophyte formation, subchondral bone plate elevation, intralesional osteophyte formation, subchondral bone cyst formation, or combinations thereof. CONCLUSIONS MACI grafts in patients with revision and total joint arthroplasty were predominantly fibrocartilage in repair type, did not differ in composition and were histologically dissimilar to healthy cartilage. Clinically failed cases showed evidence of osteochondral unit failure, rather than merely cartilage repair tissue failure. The role of the subchondral bone in relation to pain and failure and the pathogenesis warrants further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aswin Beck
- Centre for Orthopaedic Research, Faculty
of Health and Medical Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands,
Western Australia, Australia
| | - David Wood
- Centre for Orthopaedic Research, Faculty
of Health and Medical Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands,
Western Australia, Australia
| | | | - Jay Ebert
- School of Human Sciences, Faculty of
Science, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Western Australia,
Australia
| | - Greg Janes
- Perth Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine
Research Institute, West Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Martin Sullivan
- Foot & Ankle Department, St.
Vincent’s Clinic, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Ming-Hao Zheng
- Centre for Orthopaedic Research, Faculty
of Health and Medical Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands,
Western Australia, Australia
- Ming-Hao Zheng, Centre for Orthopaedic
Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, The University of Western
Australia, 2nd Floor M-Block QEII Medical Centre, Nedlands, Western Australia
6009, Australia.
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Molfetta L, Casabella A, Rosini S, Saviola G, Palermo A. Role of the osteochondral unit in the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis: focus on the potential use of clodronate. Curr Rheumatol Rev 2021; 18:2-11. [PMID: 34615451 DOI: 10.2174/1573397117666211006094117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2020] [Revised: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Osteoarthritis (OA) is a chronic disease characterized by inflammation and progressive deterioration of the joint. The etiology of OA includes genetic, phlogistic, dismetabolic and mechanical factors. Historically, cartilage was considered the target of the disease and therapy was aimed at protecting and lubricating the articular cartilage. The osteochondral unit is composed of articular cartilage, calcified cartilage, and subchondral and trabecular bone, which work synergistically to support the functional loading of the joint. Numerous studies today show that OA involves the osteochondral unit, with the participation therefore of the bone in the starting and progression of the disease, which is associated with chondropathy. Cytokines involved in the process leading to cartilage damage are also mediators of subchondral bone edema. Therefore, OA therapy must be based on the use of painkillers and bisphosphonates for both the control of osteometabolic damage and its analgesic activity. Monitoring of the disease of the osteochondral unit must be extensive, since bone marrow edema can be considered as a marker of the evolution of OA. In the present review we discuss some of the pathogenetic mechanisms associated with osteoarthritis, with particular focus on the osteochondral unit and the use of clodronate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luigi Molfetta
- DISC Department of Integrated Surgical and Diagnostic science, School of Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Genoa, Genoa. Italy
| | - Andrea Casabella
- DiMI Department of Internal Medicine Osteoporosis, Bone and Joint Disease Research Center, CROPO, Geno. Italy
| | | | - Gianantonio Saviola
- Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri IRCCS, Rheumatology and Rehabilitation Unit of the Institute of Castel Goffredo, Mantua. Italy
| | - Andrea Palermo
- IRCCS Auxologico Italian Institute - 3 Unit of Orthopaedic Surgery - Capitanio Hospital, Milan. Italy
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Damerau A, Pfeiffenberger M, Weber MC, Burmester GR, Buttgereit F, Gaber T, Lang A. A Human Osteochondral Tissue Model Mimicking Cytokine-Induced Key Features of Arthritis In Vitro. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 22:E128. [PMID: 33374446 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22010128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Adequate tissue engineered models are required to further understand the (patho)physiological mechanism involved in the destructive processes of cartilage and subchondral bone during rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Therefore, we developed a human in vitro 3D osteochondral tissue model (OTM), mimicking cytokine-induced cellular and matrix-related changes leading to cartilage degradation and bone destruction in order to ultimately provide a preclinical drug screening tool. To this end, the OTM was engineered by co-cultivation of mesenchymal stromal cell (MSC)-derived bone and cartilage components in a 3D environment. It was comprehensively characterized on cell, protein, and mRNA level. Stimulating the OTM with pro-inflammatory cytokines, relevant in RA (tumor necrosis factor α, interleukin-6, macrophage migration inhibitory factor), caused cell- and matrix-related changes, resulting in a significantly induced gene expression of lactate dehydrogenase A, interleukin-8 and tumor necrosis factor α in both, cartilage and bone, while the matrix metalloproteases 1 and 3 were only induced in cartilage. Finally, application of target-specific drugs prevented the induction of inflammation and matrix-degradation. Thus, we here provide evidence that our human in vitro 3D OTM mimics cytokine-induced cell- and matrix-related changes—key features of RA—and may serve as a preclinical tool for the evaluation of both new targets and potential drugs in a more translational setup.
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Gao L, Cucchiarini M, Madry H. Cyst formation in the subchondral bone following cartilage repair. Clin Transl Med 2020; 10:e248. [PMID: 33377663 PMCID: PMC7733665 DOI: 10.1002/ctm2.248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2020] [Revised: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Subchondral bone cysts represent an early postoperative sign associated with many articular cartilage repair procedures. They may be defined as an abnormal cavity within the subchondral bone in close proximity of a treated cartilage defect with a possible communication to the joint cavity in the absence of osteoarthritis. Two synergistic mechanisms of subchondral cyst formation, the theory of internal upregulation of local proinflammatory factors, and the external hydraulic theory, are proposed to explain their occurrence. This review describes subchondral bone cysts in the context of articular cartilage repair to improve investigations of these pathological changes. It summarizes their epidemiology in both preclinical and clinical settings with a focus on individual cartilage repair procedures, examines an algorithm for subchondral bone analysis, elaborates on the underlying mechanism of subchondral cyst formation, and condenses the clinical implications and perspectives on subchondral bone cyst formation in cartilage repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Gao
- Center of Experimental OrthopaedicsSaarland University Medical Center and Saarland UniversityHomburgGermany
| | - Magali Cucchiarini
- Center of Experimental OrthopaedicsSaarland University Medical Center and Saarland UniversityHomburgGermany
| | - Henning Madry
- Center of Experimental OrthopaedicsSaarland University Medical Center and Saarland UniversityHomburgGermany
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Oláh T, Michaelis JC, Cai X, Cucchiarini M, Madry H. Comparative anatomy and morphology of the knee in translational models for articular cartilage disorders. Part II: Small animals. Ann Anat 2020; 234:151630. [PMID: 33129976 DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2020.151630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Small animal models are critical to model the complex disease mechanisms affecting a functional joint leading to articular cartilage disorders. They are advantageous for several reasons and significantly contributed to the understanding of the mechanisms of cartilage diseases among which osteoarthritis. METHODS Literature search in Pubmed. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION This narrative review summarizes the most relevant anatomical structural and functional characteristics of the knee (stifle) joints of the major small animal species, including mice, rats, guinea pigs, and rabbits compared with humans. Specific characteristics of each species, including kinematical gait parameters are provided and compared with the human situation. When placed in a proper context respecting their challenges and limitations, small animal models are important and appropriate models for articular cartilage disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamás Oláh
- Center of Experimental Orthopaedics, Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
| | | | - Xiaoyu Cai
- Center of Experimental Orthopaedics, Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
| | - Magali Cucchiarini
- Center of Experimental Orthopaedics, Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
| | - Henning Madry
- Center of Experimental Orthopaedics, Saarland University, Homburg, Germany; Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Saarland University Medical Center, Homburg, Germany.
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Chen L, Yao F, Wang T, Li G, Chen P, Bulsara M, Zheng JJY, Landao-Bassonga E, Firth M, Vasantharao P, Huang Y, Lorimer M, Graves S, Gao J, Carey-Smith R, Papadimitriou J, Zhang C, Wood D, Jones C, Zheng M. Horizontal fissuring at the osteochondral interface: a novel and unique pathological feature in patients with obesity-related osteoarthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2020; 79:811-818. [PMID: 32269059 PMCID: PMC7286031 DOI: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2020-216942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2020] [Revised: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Objectives Obesity is a well-recognised risk factor for osteoarthritis (OA). Our aim is to characterise body mass index (BMI)-associated pathological changes in the osteochondral unit and determine if obesity is the major causal antecedent of early joint replacement in patients with OA. Methods We analysed the correlation between BMI and the age at which patients undergo total knee replacement (TKR) in 41 023 patients from the Australian Orthopaedic Association National Joint Replacement Registry. We then investigated the effect of BMI on pathological changes of the tibia plateau of knee joint in a representative subset of the registry. Results 57.58% of patients in Australia who had TKR were obese. Patients with overweight, obese class I & II or obese class III received a TKR 1.89, 4.48 and 8.08 years earlier than patients with normal weight, respectively. Microscopic examination revealed that horizontal fissuring at the osteochondral interface was the major pathological feature of obesity-related OA. The frequency of horizontal fissure was strongly associated with increased BMI in the predominant compartment. An increase in one unit of BMI (1 kg/m2) increased the odds of horizontal fissures by 14.7%. 84.4% of the horizontal fissures were attributable to obesity. Reduced cartilage degradation and alteration of subchondral bone microstructure were also associated with increased BMI. Conclusions The key pathological feature in OA patients with obesity is horizontal fissuring at the osteochondral unit interface. Obesity is strongly associated with a younger age of first TKR, which may be a result of horizontal fissures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lianzhi Chen
- Centre for Orthopaedic Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Felix Yao
- Centre for Orthopaedic Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Tao Wang
- Centre for Orthopaedic Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Guangyi Li
- Centre for Orthopaedic Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia.,Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Peilin Chen
- Centre for Orthopaedic Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Max Bulsara
- Institute for Health Research, University of Notre Dame, Fremantle, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Jessica Jun Yi Zheng
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Euphemie Landao-Bassonga
- Centre for Orthopaedic Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Marty Firth
- Centre for Applied Statistics, Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Praveen Vasantharao
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Royal Perth Hospital, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Yigang Huang
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Michelle Lorimer
- South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute (SAHMRI), Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Stephen Graves
- Australian Orthopaedic Association National Joint Replacement Registry, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Junjie Gao
- Centre for Orthopaedic Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia.,Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai, China.,Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Science, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Richard Carey-Smith
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - John Papadimitriou
- Centre for Orthopaedic Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia.,Pathwest Laboratories, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Changqing Zhang
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - David Wood
- Centre for Orthopaedic Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Christopher Jones
- Medical School, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia .,Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Fiona Stanley Hospital Group, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Minghao Zheng
- Centre for Orthopaedic Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia .,Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Science, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
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12
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Lepage SIM, Robson N, Gilmore H, Davis O, Hooper A, St John S, Kamesan V, Gelis P, Carvajal D, Hurtig M, Koch TG. Beyond Cartilage Repair: The Role of the Osteochondral Unit in Joint Health and Disease. Tissue Eng Part B Rev 2019; 25:114-125. [PMID: 30638141 PMCID: PMC6486663 DOI: 10.1089/ten.teb.2018.0122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Once believed to be limited to articular cartilage, osteoarthritis is now considered to be an organ disease of the “whole joint.” Damage to the articular surface can lead to, be caused by, or occur in parallel with, damage to other tissues in the joint. The relationship between cartilage and the underlying subchondral bone has particular importance when assessing joint health and determining treatment strategies. The articular cartilage is anchored to the subchondral bone through an interface of calcified cartilage, which as a whole makes up the osteochondral unit. This unit functions primarily by transferring load-bearing weight over the joint to allow for normal joint articulation and movement. Unfortunately, irreversible damage and degeneration of the osteochondral unit can severely limit joint function. Our understanding of joint pain, the primary complaint of patients, is poorly understood and past efforts toward structural cartilage restoration have often not been associated with a reduction in pain. Continued research focusing on the contribution of subchondral bone and restoration of the entire osteochondral unit are therefore needed, with the hope that this will lead to curative, and not merely palliative, treatment options. The purpose of this narrative review is to investigate the role of the osteochondral unit in joint health and disease. Topics of discussion include the crosstalk between cartilage and bone, the efficacy of diagnostic procedures, the origins of joint pain, current and emerging treatment paradigms, and suitable preclinical animal models for safety and efficacy assessment of novel osteochondral therapies. The goal of the review is to facilitate an appreciation of the important role played by the subchondral bone in joint pain and why the osteochondral unit as a whole should be considered in many cases of joint restoration strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah I M Lepage
- 1 Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Naomi Robson
- 1 Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Hillary Gilmore
- 1 Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Ola Davis
- 1 Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Allyssa Hooper
- 1 Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Stephanie St John
- 1 Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Vashine Kamesan
- 1 Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Paul Gelis
- 1 Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Diana Carvajal
- 1 Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Mark Hurtig
- 2 Department of Clinical Studies, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Thomas G Koch
- 1 Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
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13
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Ogura T, Merkely G, Bryant T, Winalski CS, Minas T. Autologous Chondrocyte Implantation "Segmental-Sandwich" Technique for Deep Osteochondral Defects in the Knee: Clinical Outcomes and Correlation With Magnetic Resonance Imaging Findings. Orthop J Sports Med 2019; 7:2325967119847173. [PMID: 31192269 PMCID: PMC6540512 DOI: 10.1177/2325967119847173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Symptomatic osteochondral defects are difficult to manage, especially in patients with deep (>8-10 mm) empty defects. The restoration of articular congruence is crucial to avoid the progression to osteoarthritis (OA). Purpose To describe the autologous chondrocyte implantation (ACI) "segmental-sandwich" technique for restoration of the osteochondral unit and to evaluate midterm outcomes in patients treated with this procedure. Correlations between magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and radiographic findings with outcomes were assessed. Study Design Case series; Level of evidence, 4. Methods Outcomes were evaluated for a consecutive cohort of 15 patients with symptomatic deep (>8 mm) osteochondral lesions who underwent autologous bone grafting plus the ACI segmental-sandwich technique performed by a single surgeon between 2003 and 2011. Patients with a minimum 2-year follow-up were included. All patients completed validated clinical outcome scales and a patient satisfaction survey. The Kellgren-Lawrence (K-L) grade was assessed for the progression to OA. The repair site was evaluated with the MOCART (magnetic resonance observation of cartilage repair tissue) score. Filling and tissue characteristics of the bone defect were analyzed with MRI. Results All patients (mean age at surgery, 31.0 ± 9.1 years) were available for follow-up (mean follow-up, 7.8 ± 3.0 years; range, 2-15 years). The mean chondral lesion size was 6.0 ± 3.5 cm2 (range, 1.5-13.5 cm2), with a mean bone defect area of 1.7 cm2 (27%-40% of overall surface area treated by ACI) and depth of 1.0 cm. All patients had successful clinical outcomes, and all functional scores improved significantly (P < .05). Patients reported a very high satisfaction rate (93%). The K-L grade demonstrated no significant progression to OA over a mean follow-up of 4.7 years. For 12 patients with MRI results available, the mean MOCART score at a mean of 3.3 years was 64.2 ± 19.9, with complete or near-complete (≥75% of defect volume) chondral defect filling (83%) and complete integration to adjacent cartilage (83%). Bone defects were completely filled in 83% of patients. Conclusion The ACI segmental-sandwich technique provides significant functional improvements at midterm follow-up and excellent survival rates. This unique treatment allows for the resurfacing of cartilage defects and the repair of underlying segmental bone lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahiro Ogura
- Sports Medicine Center, Funabashi Orthopaedic Hospital, Funabashi, Japan.,Cartilage Repair Center, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Gergo Merkely
- Cartilage Repair Center, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Traumatology, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Tim Bryant
- Cartilage Repair Center, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | - Tom Minas
- Cartilage Repair Center, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Cartilage Repair Center, Paley Orthopedic & Spine Institute, St Mary's Medical Center, West Palm Beach, Florida, USA
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14
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Duchi S, Doyle S, Eekel T, D O'Connell C, Augustine C, Choong P, Onofrillo C, Di Bella C. Protocols for Culturing and Imaging a Human Ex Vivo Osteochondral Model for Cartilage Biomanufacturing Applications. Materials (Basel) 2019; 12:E640. [PMID: 30791632 PMCID: PMC6416585 DOI: 10.3390/ma12040640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2019] [Revised: 02/15/2019] [Accepted: 02/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Cartilage defects and diseases remain major clinical issues in orthopaedics. Biomanufacturing is now a tangible option for the delivery of bioscaffolds capable of regenerating the deficient cartilage tissue. However, several limitations of in vitro and experimental animal models pose serious challenges to the translation of preclinical findings into clinical practice. Ex vivo models are of great value for translating in vitro tissue engineered approaches into clinically relevant conditions. Our aim is to obtain a viable human osteochondral (OC) model to test hydrogel-based materials for cartilage repair. Here we describe a detailed step-by-step framework for the generation of human OC plugs, their culture in a perfusion device and the processing procedures for histological and advanced microscopy imaging. Our ex vivo OC model fulfils the following requirements: the model is metabolically stable for a relevant culture period of 4 weeks in a perfusion bioreactor, the processing procedures allowed for the analysis of 3 different tissues or materials (cartilage, bone and hydrogel) without compromising their integrity. We determined a protocol and the settings for a non-linear microscopy technique on label free sections. Furthermore, we established a clearing protocol to perform light sheet-based observations on the cartilage layer without the need for tedious and destructive histological procedures. Finally, we showed that our OC system is a clinically relevant in terms of cartilage regeneration potential. In conclusion, this OC model represents a valuable preclinical ex vivo tool for studying cartilage therapies, such as hydrogel-based bioscaffolds, and we envision it will reduce the number of animals needed for in vivo testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serena Duchi
- BioFab3D, Aikenhead Centre for Medical Discovery, St Vincent's Hospital, Clinical Sciences Building, 29 Regent Street, 3065 Fitzroy, Australia.
- Department of Surgery, St Vincent's Hospital, University of Melbourne, Clinical Sciences Building, 29 Regent Street, 3065 Fitzroy, Australia.
| | - Stephanie Doyle
- BioFab3D, Aikenhead Centre for Medical Discovery, St Vincent's Hospital, Clinical Sciences Building, 29 Regent Street, 3065 Fitzroy, Australia.
- School of Engineering, Discipline of Electrical and Biomedical Engineering, RMIT University, 124 La Trobe Street, 3000 Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Timon Eekel
- University of Utrecht, Domplein 29, 3512 JE Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Cathal D O'Connell
- BioFab3D, Aikenhead Centre for Medical Discovery, St Vincent's Hospital, Clinical Sciences Building, 29 Regent Street, 3065 Fitzroy, Australia.
| | - Cheryl Augustine
- Department of Surgery, St Vincent's Hospital, University of Melbourne, Clinical Sciences Building, 29 Regent Street, 3065 Fitzroy, Australia.
| | - Peter Choong
- BioFab3D, Aikenhead Centre for Medical Discovery, St Vincent's Hospital, Clinical Sciences Building, 29 Regent Street, 3065 Fitzroy, Australia.
- Department of Surgery, St Vincent's Hospital, University of Melbourne, Clinical Sciences Building, 29 Regent Street, 3065 Fitzroy, Australia.
- Department of Orthopaedics, St Vincent's Hospital, 41 Victoria Parade, 3065 Fitzroy, Australia.
| | - Carmine Onofrillo
- BioFab3D, Aikenhead Centre for Medical Discovery, St Vincent's Hospital, Clinical Sciences Building, 29 Regent Street, 3065 Fitzroy, Australia.
- Department of Surgery, St Vincent's Hospital, University of Melbourne, Clinical Sciences Building, 29 Regent Street, 3065 Fitzroy, Australia.
| | - Claudia Di Bella
- BioFab3D, Aikenhead Centre for Medical Discovery, St Vincent's Hospital, Clinical Sciences Building, 29 Regent Street, 3065 Fitzroy, Australia.
- Department of Surgery, St Vincent's Hospital, University of Melbourne, Clinical Sciences Building, 29 Regent Street, 3065 Fitzroy, Australia.
- Department of Orthopaedics, St Vincent's Hospital, 41 Victoria Parade, 3065 Fitzroy, Australia.
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15
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Abstract
Subchondral bone plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of osteochondral disease across veterinary species. The subchondral bone is highly adaptable, with the ability to model and remodel in response to loading stresses experienced by the joint. Repetitive stress injuries within the joint can result in primary or secondary pathologic lesions within the subchondral bone, which have been recognized to contribute to the development and progression of osteoarthritis. Recent advances in diagnostic imaging, particularly volumetric imaging modalities have facilitated earlier identification of subchondral bone disease. Despite these advancements, limitations in our knowledge about subchondral bone makes treatment and prevention of these conditions challenging. The purpose of this report is to review our current understanding of subchondral bone and its relationship to osteoarthritis across veterinary species, with a specific focus in the research that has been performed in horses. It can be concluded that our current understanding of subchondral bone is advancing, and future experimental, clinical and pathologic studies will provide additional insight about subchondral bone and its relationship to joint disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly L Stewart
- Equine Orthopaedic Research Center, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Christopher E Kawcak
- Equine Orthopaedic Research Center, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
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