Hypophosphatemia. Causes and clinical consequences

Sodium Glycerophosphate vs. Inorganic Phosphate Use in Parenteral Nutrition for Preterm Infants: A Retrospective Study

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Sodium glycerophosphate improves the adverse side effects of parenteral nutrition. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate different outcomes, including metabolic bone disease and electrolyte imbalance, associated with the use of sodium glycerophosphate or inorganic phosphate in parenteral nutrition for preterm neonates.

METHODS

This retrospective cohort study enrolled 402 newborns admitted to the neonatal intensive care unit of one medical center between January 2019 and September 2021. Of them, 205 received sodium glycerophosphate as parenteral nutrition, while the other 197 received inorganic phosphate. Baseline characteristics and growth parameters, including body weight, body length, and head circumference in the first year of life; calcium and phosphate content of parenteral nutrition in the first 4 weeks; calcium, phosphorus, alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and creatinine levels; and morbidities were compared.

RESULTS

During the first 4 weeks, the calcium and phosphate contents of parenteral nutrition were significantly higher in the sodium glycerophosphate vs. inorganic phosphate group. Growth parameters did not differ significantly between groups. The sodium glycerophosphate group showed a higher mean serum phosphate level (4.0 ± 1.2 mg/dL vs. 3.5 ± 1.3 mg/dL, p = 0.001), lower serum ALP level (402.8 ± 202.8 U/L vs. 466.4 ± 228.6 U/L, p = 0.004), lower seizure incidence (4.9% vs. 13.2%, p = 0.003), and higher hypocalcemia incidence (41.5% vs. 31.5%, p = 0.038). However, there were no significant intergroup differences in other common morbidities such as metabolic bone diseases of prematurity, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, electrolyte imbalance, hypoglycemia, retinopathy of prematurity, or intraventricular hemorrhage.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared to inorganic phosphate, sodium glycerophosphate is associated with higher serum phosphate levels, lower ALP levels, and reduced seizure incidence in premature infants. However, as the study was retrospective and single-center, further randomized controlled trials are needed to confirm these findings.

Retrospective evaluation of refeeding syndrome in cats: 11 cases (2013-2019)

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to describe the clinicopathological findings, management and outcome of cats with refeeding syndrome (RS) following prolonged starvation.

METHODS

Records from four referral hospitals were searched between May 2013 and November 2019 and retrospectively evaluated. Inclusion criteria were the presence of a risk factor for RS, such as severe weight loss or emaciation following a period of presumed starvation, hypophosphataemia or a delta phosphorous exceeding 30% reduction following refeeding, being treated on the basis of a clinical diagnosis of RS and one or more derangement of hypokalaemia, hypoglycaemia or hyperglycaemia.

RESULTS

Eleven cats were identified, which had been missing for a median of 6 weeks (range 3-104 weeks). Mean ± SD percentage weight loss was 46% ± 7% (n = 8). Eight of 11 cats developed hypophosphataemia with a mean delta phosphorous of -47% ± 9%. All cats were documented to be hypokalaemic. During hospitalisation, 10/11 cats developed hyperglycaemia and 7/11 cats developed hypoglycaemia. Cardiovascular, gastrointestinal and neurological signs were common. Eight of 11 cats displayed new or progressive neurological deficits after refeeding, including mentation changes and cerebellar dysfunction. All cats became anaemic and seven cats required a blood transfusion. Eight cats survived to discharge after a mean of 14 ± 4 days of hospitalisation. Six cats developed acute kidney injury (AKI; International Renal Interest Society stage 1). The presence of AKI (P = 0.024) was associated with non-survival and maximum bilirubin concentration was significantly higher in non-survivors (P = 0.018).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Cats with RS in this cohort had been missing, presumed starved, for more than 3 weeks. In addition to hypophosphataemia and hypokalaemia, altered glucose homeostasis and organ damage involving the liver and kidneys were common. Cats with RS appear to have a good prognosis, but prolonged intensive care is required.

Tumor-induced osteomalacia

Tumor-induced osteomalacia (TIO), also known as oncogenic osteomalacia, is a rare paraneoplastic syndrome characterized by hypophosphatemia resulting from decreased tubular phosphate reabsorption, with a low or inappropriately normal level of active vitamin D. The culprit tumors of TIO could produce fibroblast growth factor 23 which plays a role in regulating renal Pi handling and 25-hydroxyvitamin D 1α-hydroxylase activity. Chronic hypophosphatemia could eventually lead to inadequate bone mineralization, presenting as osteomalacia. The diagnosis should be considered when patients manifest as hypophosphatemia and osteomalacia, or rickets and needs to be differentiated from other disorders of phosphate metabolism, such as the inhereditary diseases like X-linked hypophosphataemic rickets, autosomal dominant hypophosphataemic rickets, autosomal recessive hypophosphataemic rickets and acquired diseases like vitamin D deficiency. Localization of responsible tumors could be rather difficult since the vast majority are very small and could be everywhere in the body. A combination of thorough physical examination, laboratory tests and imaging techniques should be applied and sometimes a venous sampling may come into handy. The technology of somatostatin-receptor functional scintigraphy markedly facilitates the localization of TIO tumor. Patients undergoing complete removal of the causative neoplasm generally have favorable prognoses while a few have been reported to suffer from recurrence and metastasis. For those undetectable or unresectable cases, phosphate supplements and active vitamin D should be administrated and curative intended radiotherapy or ablation is optional.

Cobalamin, folate and inorganic phosphate abnormalities in ill cats

Hypocobalaminaemia in cats has previously been identified, but the incidence reported has varied, and the frequency of folate deficiency is unknown. The aims of this study were to evaluate the incidence of low cobalamin and folate levels in a population of cats that were suffering predominantly from diseases of the alimentary tract (including the liver and pancreas) and to ascertain whether severity of disease (as assessed by bodyweight and body condition score (BCS)) related to degree of deficiency. The study population comprised 103 cats, of which 16.5% had low cobalamin levels and 38.8% had low folate levels. A serendipitous finding was inorganic phosphate levels below the reference range in 48% of the cases. Significant associations were found between subnormal cobalamin levels and median BCS (P=0.049); combined low folate and low cobalamin and bodyweight (P=0.002), BCS (P=0.024) and inorganic phosphate levels (P=0.003). The finding of low levels of folate and cobalamin in clinical cases suggests that supplementation may be indicated more frequently than is currently recognised.

Electrolyte disorders

Abnormal electrolyte concentrations occur commonly in hospitalized patients and may produce a variety of clinical symptoms, cause lack of response to therapeutics for primary clinical conditions, and affect clinical outcome. Recognition of electrolyte disturbances requires a high index of suspicion by the clinician for such a disturbance and prompt therapy to ensure a positive and timely outcome for the patient. This article discusses electrolyte abnormalities that occur in critically ill patients, with a review of diseases commonly associated with each electrolyte disturbance, and their recommended management.

Current understanding of feline diabetes: part 2, treatment

When treating diabetic cats, the primary aim is to control clinical signs without causing clinical hypoglycaemia. Secondary goals are to maximise the chances of attaining diabetic remission and to minimise the risk of complications due to chronic hyperglycaemia. A treatment plan that is convenient for the owner is important for compliance. Underweight or overweight diabetic cats should be fed with the aim of normalising bodyweight. Current evidence suggests that non-obese diabetic cats can be fed ad libitum. The oral hypoglycaemic drug glipizide is well established as a treatment for about a third of diabetic cats, which have residual beta cell function. Preliminary studies on other oral agents such as vanadium salts, metformin, and troglitazone indicate a potential use in some diabetic cats. Insulin treatment remains the treatment of choice for the majority of diabetic cats. Choice of insulin, dose rates and monitoring of treatment are discussed.

Diabetic ketoacidosis

Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a complex and potentially fatal metabolic disorder in patients with diabetes mellitus. An understanding of the pathophysiology of DKA is essential in order to optimize patient management. A combination of insulin deficiency, increased stress hormone levels, and volume depletion account for the laboratory abnormalities and clinical signs observed in these patients. Successful therapy depends upon correction of hyperglycemia, dehydration, and electrolyte and blood gas abnormalities.

Hypophosphatemia associated with enteral alimentation in cats

Hypophosphatemia is uncommon in cats, but it has been reported in association with diabetes mellitus and hepatic lipidosis, where it can cause hemolysis, rhabdomyopathy, depression, seizures, and coma. The purpose of this article is to describe 9 cats that developed low serum phosphorus concentrations (< 2.5 mg/dL) subsequent to enteral alimentation. Serum biochemical analyses from more than 6,000 cats were reviewed. The medical records of all cats with hypophosphatemia were examined for history of enteral alimentation; diabetic cats were excluded from the study. Nine cats, ranging in age from 3 to 17 years, were identified. All cats had normal serum phosphorus concentrations before tube feeding began. Onset of hypophosphatemia occurred 12 to 72 hours after initiation of enteral alimentation, and the nadir for phosphorus concentrations ranged from 0.4 to 2.4 mg/dL. Hemolysis occurred in 6 of the 9 cats. Hypophosphatemia secondary to enteral alimentation is an uncommon clinical finding in cats. Cats with high alanine aminotransferase activity, hyperbilirubinemia, and weight loss should be closely monitored for hypophosphatemia during the first 72 hours of enteral alimentation.

Hypophosphatemia and hemolytic anemia associated with diabetes mellitus and hepatic lipidosis in cats

Hypophosphatemia associated with hemolytic anemia was diagnosed in five cats with diabetes mellitus and in one cat with idiopathic hepatic lipidosis. The hematocrit began decreasing within 24 to 48 hours after documented hypophosphatemia in each case. The anemia resolved in all five surviving cats. Because of the temporal relationship and lack of other detectable causes, hemolytic anemia was presumed to be caused by hypophosphatemia. There were increased Heinz bodies in three of six hypophosphatemic cats during episodes of hemolysis. Intravenous potassium phosphate administration corrected the hypophosphatemia in four of five cats. The effective dosages of intravenous phosphate ranged from 0.011 to 0.017 mmol of phosphate/kg/h for 6 to 12 hours. Hypocalcemia (5.4 to 8.7 mg/dL) occurred in four of five cats treated with intravenous phosphate; however, only one cat developed clinical signs attributable to hypocalcemia. Based on this retrospective study, we recommend monitoring serum phosphorus concentration every 6 to 12 hours in cats likely to become hypophosphatemic. Treatment of hypophosphatemia in cats is warranted because of the apparent increased susceptibility of cats to hypophosphatemia-induced hemolysis. Cats with severe hypophosphatemia (< or = 1.5 mg/dL) should be given oral or parenteral phosphate if contraindications do not exist.