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Pimentel KL, Allen AL, Carmalt JL. Developmental orthopaedic disease and early osteoarthritis of the temporomandibular joint in a 15‐month‐old Quarter Horse filly. EQUINE VET EDUC 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/eve.13578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- K. L. Pimentel
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences Western College of Veterinary Medicine University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon Saskatchewan Canada
| | - A. L. Allen
- Department of Veterinary Pathology Western College of Veterinary Medicine University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon Saskatchewan Canada
| | - J. L. Carmalt
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences Western College of Veterinary Medicine University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon Saskatchewan Canada
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Bourebaba L, Röcken M, Marycz K. Osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) in Horses - Molecular Background of its Pathogenesis and Perspectives for Progenitor Stem Cell Therapy. Stem Cell Rev Rep 2020; 15:374-390. [PMID: 30796679 PMCID: PMC6534522 DOI: 10.1007/s12015-019-09875-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Osteochondrosis (osteochondrosis dissecans; OCD) is a disease syndrome of growing cartilage related to different clinical entities such as epiphysitis, subchondral cysts and angular carpal deformities, which occurs in growing animals of all species, including horses. Nowadays, these disorders are affecting increasing numbers of young horses worldwide. As a complex multifactorial disease, OCD is initiated when failure in cartilage canals because of existing ischemia, chondrocyte biogenesis impairment as well as biochemical and genetic disruptions occur. Recently, particular attention have been accorded to the definition of possible relations between OCD and some metabolic disorders; in this way, implication of mitochondrial dysfunctions, endoplasmic reticulum disruptions, oxidative stress or endocrinological affections are among the most considered axes for future researches. As one of the most frequent cause of impaired orthopaedic potential, which may result in a sharp decrease in athletic performances of the affected animals, and lead to the occurrence of complications such as joint fragility and laminitis, OCD remains as one of the primary causes of considerable economic losses in all sections of the equine industry. It would therefore be important to provide more information on the exact pathophysiological mechanism(s) underlying early OC(D) lesions, in order to implement innovative strategies involving the use of progenitor stem cells, which are considered nowadays as a promising approach to regenerative medicine, with the potential to treat numerous orthopaedic disorders, including osteo-degenerative diseases, for prevention and reduction of incidence of the disease, not only in horses, but also in human medicine, as the equine model is already widely accepted by the scientific community and approved by the FDA, for the research and application of cellular therapies in the treatment of human conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynda Bourebaba
- Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Biology and Animal Science, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Norwida 27B, 50-375, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Michael Röcken
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Equine Clinic - Equine Surgery, Justus-Liebig-University, 35392, Gießen, Germany
| | - Krzysztof Marycz
- Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Biology and Animal Science, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Norwida 27B, 50-375, Wrocław, Poland. .,Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Equine Clinic - Equine Surgery, Justus-Liebig-University, 35392, Gießen, Germany.
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Wormstrand BH, Fjordbakk CT, Griffiths DJ, Lykkjen S, Olstad K. Development of the blood supply to the growth cartilage of the medial femoral condyle of foals. Equine Vet J 2020; 53:134-142. [PMID: 32144821 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2019] [Revised: 01/24/2020] [Accepted: 02/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Growth cartilage is found in the articular-epiphyseal cartilage complex (AECC) and the physis. It has a temporary blood supply organised as end arteries. Vascular failure is associated with osteochondrosis, but infection can also obstruct vessels. The location of bacteria was recently compared to arterial perfusion, and the results indicated that they were located in the distal tips of AECC end arteries. Systematic perfusion studies were not available for comparison to the infected physes. Further studies may improve our understanding of infections and other pathologies. OBJECTIVES To describe development of the blood supply to the growth cartilage of the medial femoral condyle in fetuses and foals from 228 days of gestation to 62 days old. STUDY DESIGN Ex vivo arterial perfusion study. METHODS The left medial femoral condyle of 10 Norwegian Fjord Pony fetuses and foals (228 days of gestation to 62 days old) and one Norwegian-Swedish Coldblooded Trotter foal (10 days old) was arterially perfused with barium and underwent micro-computed tomography, qualitative and quantitative description of vessels. RESULTS In the fetus, the physis was supplied by metaphyseal-origin arteries. In 1-10 day-old foals, the physis was supplied by a mixture of metaphyseal- and epiphyseal-origin arteries, and from 15 days of age by epiphyseal-origin arteries only. The number of vessels increased before it decreased in both the AECC and the physis postnatally. Vessels in the cartilage showed a monopodial branching pattern, whereas vessels in epiphyseal and metaphyseal bone showed both monopodial and dichotomous branching. MAIN LIMITATIONS Foals with confirmed pathologies were not examined. CONCLUSIONS The blood supply to growth cartilage changed with age, including the physeal supply that changed from metaphyseal- to epiphyseal-origin arteries. The number of vessels increased before it decreased postnatally, and two different branching patterns were observed. These results may improve our understanding of growth cartilage vascular failure and osteomyelitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bjørn H Wormstrand
- Department of Companion Animal Sciences, Equine Section, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Cathrine T Fjordbakk
- Department of Companion Animal Sciences, Equine Section, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - David J Griffiths
- Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Sigrid Lykkjen
- Department of Companion Animal Sciences, Equine Section, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Kristin Olstad
- Department of Companion Animal Sciences, Equine Section, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Oslo, Norway
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Abstract
Osteochondrosis is a common and clinically important joint disorder that occurs in human beings and in multiple animal species, most commonly pigs, horses, and dogs. This disorder is defined as a focal disturbance of enchondral ossification and is regarded as having a multifactorial etiology, with no single factor accounting for all aspects of the disease. The most commonly cited etiologic factors are heredity, rapid growth, anatomic conformation, trauma, and dietary imbalances; however, only heredity and anatomic conformation are well supported by the scientific literature. The way in which the disease is initiated has been debated. Although formation of a fragile cartilage, failure of chondrocyte differentiation, subchondral bone necrosis, and failure of blood supply to the growth cartilage all have been proposed as the initial step in the pathogenesis, the recent literature strongly supports failure of blood supply to growth cartilage as being the most likely. The term osteochondrosis has been used to describe a wide range of different lesions among different species. We suggest a refinement of this terminology to include the modifiers latens (lesion confined to epiphyseal cartilage), manifesta (lesion accompanied by delay in endochondral ossification), and dissecans (cleft formation through articular cartilage). The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the disease, focusing on the most commonly cited theories, recent research findings, and our own views regarding the etiology and pathogenesis of osteochondrosis, in order to provide a better understanding of this apparently complex disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Ytrehus
- Section for Wildlife Diseases, National Veterinary Institute, N-0033 Oslo, Norway.
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Mirams M, Ayodele BA, Tatarczuch L, Henson FM, Pagel CN, Mackie EJ. Identification of novel osteochondrosis--Associated genes. J Orthop Res 2016; 34:404-11. [PMID: 26296056 DOI: 10.1002/jor.23033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2015] [Accepted: 08/18/2015] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
During the early stages of articular osteochondrosis, cartilage is retained in subchondral bone, but the pathophysiology of this condition of growing humans and domestic animals is poorly understood. A subtractive hybridization study was undertaken to compare gene expression between the cartilage of early experimentally induced equine osteochondrosis lesions and control cartilage. Of the many putative differentially expressed genes identified, eight were confirmed by quantitative PCR analysis as differentially expressed, in addition to those already known to be associated with early lesions. Genes encoding vacuolar H(+)-ATPase V0 subunit d2 (ATP6V0D2), cathepsin K, integrin-binding sialoprotein, integrin αV, low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 4, lumican, osteopontin, and thymosin β4 (TMSB4) were expressed at higher levels in lesions than in control cartilage. These genes included 34 genes not previously identified in cartilage. Some genes identified as associated with early lesions are known chondrocyte hypertrophy-associated genes, and in transmission electron microscopy studies normal hypertrophic chondrocytes were observed in lesions. Differential expression of ATP6V0D2 and TMSB4 in the cartilage of early naturally occurring osteochondrosis lesions was confirmed by immunohistochemistry. These results identify novel osteochondrosis-associated genes and provide evidence that articular osteochondrosis does not necessarily result from failure of chondrocytes to undergo hypertrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michiko Mirams
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Babatunde A Ayodele
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Liliana Tatarczuch
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Frances M Henson
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Charles N Pagel
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Eleanor J Mackie
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
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Kinsley MA, Semevolos SA, Duesterdieck-Zellmer KF. Wnt/β-catenin signaling of cartilage canal and osteochondral junction chondrocytes and full thickness cartilage in early equine osteochondrosis. J Orthop Res 2015; 33:1433-8. [PMID: 25676127 DOI: 10.1002/jor.22846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2014] [Accepted: 01/27/2015] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to elucidate gene and protein expression of Wnt signaling molecules in chondrocytes of foals having early osteochondrosis (OC) versus normal controls. The hypothesis was that increased expression of components of Wnt signaling pathway in osteochondral junction (OCJ) and cartilage canal (CC) chondrocytes would be found in early OC when compared to controls. Paraffin-embedded osteochondral samples (7 OC, 8 normal) and cDNA from whole cartilage (7 OC, 10 normal) and chondrocytes surrounding cartilage canals and osteochondral junctions captured with laser capture microdissection (4 OC, 6 normal) were obtained from femoropatellar joints of 17 immature horses. Equine-specific Wnt signaling molecule mRNA expression levels were evaluated by two-step real-time qPCR. Spatial tissue protein expression of β-catenin, Wnt-11, Wnt-4, and Dkk-1 was determined by immunohistochemistry. There was significantly decreased Wnt-11 and increased β-catenin, Wnt-5b, Dkk-1, Lrp6, Wif-1, Axin1, and SC-PEP gene expression in early OC cartilage canal chondrocytes compared to controls. There was also significantly increased β-catenin gene expression in early OC osteochondral junction chondrocytes compared to controls. Based on this study, abundant gene expression differences in OC chondrocytes surrounding cartilage canals suggest pathways associated with catabolism and inhibition of chondrocyte maturation are targeted in early OC pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc A Kinsley
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, 97331
| | - Stacy A Semevolos
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, 97331
| | - Katja F Duesterdieck-Zellmer
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, 97331
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Abstract
Osteochondrosis is defined as a focal disturbance in endochondral ossification. The cartilage superficial to an osteochondrosis lesion can fracture, giving rise to fragments in joints known as osteochondrosis dissecans (OCD). In pigs and horses, it has been confirmed that the disturbance in ossification is the result of failure of the blood supply to epiphyseal growth cartilage and associated ischemic chondronecrosis. The earliest lesion following vascular failure is an area of ischemic chondronecrosis at an intermediate depth of the growth cartilage (osteochondrosis latens) that is detectable ex vivo, indirectly using contrast-enhanced micro- and conventional computed tomography (CT) or directly using adiabatic T1ρ magnetic resonance imaging. More chronic lesions of ischemic chondronecrosis within the ossification front (osteochondrosis manifesta) are detectable by the same techniques and have also been followed longitudinally in pigs using plain CT. The results confirm that lesions sometimes undergo spontaneous resolution, and in combination, CT and histology observations indicate that this occurs by filling of radiolucent defects with bone from separate centers of endochondral ossification that form superficial to lesions and by phagocytosis and intramembranous ossification of granulation tissue that forms deep to lesions. Research is currently aimed at discovering the cause of the vascular failure in osteochondrosis, and studies of spontaneous lesions suggest that failure is associated with the process of incorporating blood vessels into the advancing ossification front during growth. Experimental studies also show that bacteremia can lead to vascular occlusion. Future challenges are to differentiate between causes of vascular failure and to discover the nature of the heritable predisposition for osteochondrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- K. Olstad
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Biosciences, Institute of Companion Animal Clinical Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - S. Ekman
- Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
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Lykkjen S, Dolvik NI, McCue ME, Rendahl AK, Mickelson JR, Roed KH. Genome-wide association analysis of osteochondrosis of the tibiotarsal joint in Norwegian Standardbred trotters. Anim Genet 2015; 41 Suppl 2:111-20. [PMID: 21070284 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2052.2010.02117.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Osteochondrosis (OC), a disturbance in the process of endochondral ossification, is by far the most important equine developmental orthopaedic disease and is also common in other domestic animals and humans. The purpose of this study was to identify quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated with osteochondrosis dissecans (OCD) at the intermediate ridge of the distal tibia in Norwegian Standardbred (SB) using the Illumina Equine SNP50 BeadChip whole-genome single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) assay. Radiographic data and blood samples were obtained from 464 SB yearlings. Based on the radiographic examination, 162 horses were selected for genotyping; 80 of these were cases with an OCD at the intermediate ridge of the distal tibia, and 82 were controls without any developmental lesions in the joints examined. Genotyped horses descended from 22 sires, and the number of horses in each half-sib group ranged from 3 to 14. The population structure necessitated statistical correction for stratification. When conducting a case-control genome-wide association study (GWAS), mixed-model analyses displayed regions on chromosomes (Equus callabus chromosome - ECA) 5, 10, 27 and 28 that showed moderate evidence of association (P ≤ 5 × 10(-5); this P-value is uncorrected i.e. not adjusted for multiple comparisons) with OCD in the tibiotarsal joint. Two SNPs on ECA10 represent the most significant hits (uncorrected P=1.19 × 10(-5) in the mixed-model). In the basic association (chi-square) test, these SNPs achieved statistical significance with the Bonferroni correction (P=0.038) and were close in the permuted logistic regression test (P=0.054). Putative QTL on ECA 5, 10, 27 and 28 represent interesting areas for future research, validation studies and fine mapping of candidate regions. Results presented here represent the first GWAS of OC in horses using the recently released Illumina Equine SNP50 BeadChip.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Lykkjen
- The Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine, Post-box 8146 Dep., N-0033 Oslo, Norway.
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Duesterdieck-Zellmer K, Semevolos S, Kinsley M, Riddick T. Age-related differential gene and protein expression in postnatal cartilage canal and osteochondral junction chondrocytes. Gene Expr Patterns 2014; 17:1-10. [PMID: 25479004 DOI: 10.1016/j.gep.2014.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2014] [Revised: 10/31/2014] [Accepted: 11/26/2014] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Wnt/β-catenin, Indian hedgehog (Ihh)/Parathyroid-related peptide (PTHrP) and retinoid signaling pathways regulate cartilage differentiation, growth, and function during development and play a key role in endochondral ossification. The objective of this study was to elucidate the gene and protein expression of signaling molecules of these regulatory pathways in chondrocytes surrounding cartilage canals and the osteochondral junction during neonatal and pre-adolescent development. This study revealed cell-specific and age-related differences in gene and protein expression of signaling molecules of these regulatory pathways. A trend for higher gene expression of PTHrP along the cartilage canals and Ihh along the osteochondral junction suggests the presence of paracrine feedback in articular-epiphyseal cartilage. Differential expression of canonical (β-catenin, Wnt-4, Lrp4, Lrp6) and noncanonical Wnt signaling (Wnt-5b, Wnt-11) and their inhibitors (Dkk1, Axin1, sFRP3, sFRP5, Wif-1) surrounding the cartilage canals and osteochondral junction provides evidence of the complex interactions occurring during endochondral ossification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katja Duesterdieck-Zellmer
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Stacy Semevolos
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA.
| | - Marc Kinsley
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Tara Riddick
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
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Power J, Hernandez P, Wardale J, Henson FMD. Alterations in sclerostin protein in lesions of equine osteochondrosis. Vet Rec Open 2014; 1:e000005. [PMID: 26392871 PMCID: PMC4562441 DOI: 10.1136/vropen-2013-000005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2013] [Accepted: 11/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Osteochondrosis (OC) is a common and clinically important joint disease that occurs in many species, including humans, pigs, chickens and horses. It has been described as a focal failure of endochondral ossification (EO), but no cellular/molecular mechanisms are fully described that explain the cause of this condition. Recently a Wnt signalling inhibitor, sclerostin, has been described in osteoarthritic cartilage, where it has been proposed to protect damaged cartilage from degradation. Cartilage degradation is a key event in EO, thus, abnormalities of sclerostin in growth cartilage could, potentially, lead to a failure of EO and, thus, OC. The aim of this study was to describe the distribution of sclerostin protein in normal and OC growth cartilage. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) was used to localise sclerostin protein in normal and OC growth cartilage. Growth cartilage was harvested from the distal femur of horses aged between 6 and 18 months. Cartilage was classified as normal or having lesions consistent with a diagnosis of early OC. IHC was used to identify sclerostin protein in cartilage sections. Sclerostin protein distribution was semiquantified using a grading system and shown to be upregulated throughout all three zones of cartilage in lesions of OC (IHC score 8.1 compared to IHC score of 0.88). These results indicate that sclerostin may be contributing to the development of OC lesions by inhibiting extracellular matrix remodelling or may reflect the response of damaged cartilage. Clearly, further work is required to fully characterise this observation but, with antisclerostin antibodies used to treat human osteoporosis, the possibility of development of a systemic treatment of OC remains a potential goal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathon Power
- Orthopaedic Research Unit , University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital , Box 180, Hill's Road, Cambridge CB2 2QQ , UK
| | - Paula Hernandez
- Orthopaedic Research Unit , University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital , Box 180, Hill's Road, Cambridge CB2 2QQ , UK
| | - John Wardale
- Orthopaedic Research Unit , University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital , Box 180, Hill's Road, Cambridge CB2 2QQ , UK
| | - Frances M D Henson
- Orthopaedic Research Unit , University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital , Box 180, Hill's Road, Cambridge CB2 2QQ , UK
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Riddick TL, Duesterdieck-Zellmer K, Semevolos SA. Gene and protein expression of cartilage canal and osteochondral junction chondrocytes and full-thickness cartilage in early equine osteochondrosis. Vet J 2012; 194:319-25. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2012.04.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2012] [Revised: 03/23/2012] [Accepted: 04/20/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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JÖNSSON L, DALIN G, EGENVALL A, NÄSHOLM A, ROEPSTORFF L, PHILIPSSON J. Equine hospital data as a source for study of prevalence and heritability of osteochondrosis and palmar/plantar osseous fragments of Swedish Warmblood horses. Equine Vet J 2011; 43:695-700. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00354.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Voute LC, Henson FMD, Platt D, Jeffcott LB. Osteochondrosis lesions of the lateral trochlear ridge of the distal femur in four ponies. Vet Rec 2011; 168:265. [PMID: 21498177 DOI: 10.1136/vr.c6677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Lesions of the lateral trochlear ridge (LTR) of the distal femur were investigated in four pony or pony cross horses. The animals were all geldings and were six to 15 months of age. Lesions were bilateral in three ponies and unilateral in one. Femoropatellar joint effusion and lameness were present in two ponies; clinical signs were absent in the others. The proximal LTR was affected in all four animals. The radiographic appearance of the lesions was a subchondral defect containing mineralised bodies. Arthroscopic and postmortem examination findings included an osteochondral flap, a fissured or irregular articular surface and a smooth surface overlying focally thickened cartilage that extended into subchondral bone. Thickened articular cartilage was a histological feature of all the lesions. Among the other histological features, the most common were chondronecrosis, chondrocyte clusters, phenotypically abnormal chondrocytes, horizontal fissures at the osteochondral junction and retained blood vessels. The signalment of the four ponies, their clinical signs and the pathological features of their lesions were consistent with osteochondrosis of the LTR in horses. The use of multiple criteria was considered to be important in making a specific diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- L C Voute
- Weipers Centre for Equine Welfare, Division of Large Animal Clinical Sciences and Public Health, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Glasgow, Bearsden Road, Glasgow G61 1QH.
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Olstad K, Ytrehus B, Ekman S, Carlson CS, Dolvik NI. Early Lesions of Articular Osteochondrosis in the Distal Femur of Foals. Vet Pathol 2011; 48:1165-75. [DOI: 10.1177/0300985811398250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Failure of the cartilage canal blood supply to epiphyseal growth cartilage has been implicated in the pathogenesis of articular osteochondrosis in horses and other animal species. In a previous study of the developmental pattern of the blood supply in the tarsus of foals, early lesions of osteochondrosis were consistently found in regions where the cartilage canal vessels traversed the chondro-osseous junction. The developmental pattern of blood vessels has also been described in the distal femoral epiphysis; however, the group of foals examined in that study did not have lesions of osteochondrosis in this location. Therefore, the relationship between the occurrence of early lesions of osteochondrosis and the developmental pattern of the blood supply to epiphyseal growth cartilage in this site in foals has not been examined. Distal femora were collected from 30 fetuses and foals (up to 11 months old) submitted for postmortem examination. Sections from the lateral trochlear ridge and medial femoral condyle of both hind limbs were examined histologically. Sixteen cartilage lesions were found in 7 of the 30 fetuses and foals. All lesions contained evidence of cartilage canal necrosis and ischemic chondronecrosis. The lesions were located in regions where cartilage canal vessels traversed the chondro-osseous junction, as previously observed in the tarsus. The location and morphology of lesions indicated that a subclinical stage of ischemic chondronecrosis existed that preceded and predisposed to the development of osteochondrosis dissecans and subchondral bone cysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- K. Olstad
- Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Oslo, Norway
| | - B. Ytrehus
- National Veterinary Institute, Oslo, Norway
| | - S. Ekman
- Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | - N. I. Dolvik
- Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Oslo, Norway
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Fortier LA, Kornatowski MA, Mohammed HO, Jordan MT, O'Cain LC, Stevens WB. Age-related changes in serum insulin-like growth factor-I, insulin-like growth factor-I binding protein-3 and articular cartilage structure in Thoroughbred horses. Equine Vet J 2010; 37:37-42. [PMID: 15651732 DOI: 10.2746/0425164054406838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY Structural changes in articular cartilage associated with the ageing process require definition for investigators performing developmental and age-related studies, for which information is lacking. OBJECTIVES To 1) determine the onset and end of puberty as defined by serum insulin like growth factor (IGF-I) and IGF-binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3) concentrations and 2) correlate articular-epiphyseal cartilage complex structural changes with the onset and end of puberty. METHODS IGF-I and IGFBP-3 were measured in serum samples from normal female and male horses age 9-715 days to determine peak and steady-state values for horses transitioning through puberty. Osteochondral tissue sections were obtained from horses age 120-840 days (4-28 months) and examined histologically for cartilage canals and tidemark formation. RESULTS In male and female horses, serum IGF-I/IGFBP-3 concentrations peaked at approximately 225 days, defining the onset of puberty. Cartilage canals were absent from articular cartilage just prior to this time point. IGF-I/IGFBP-3 concentrations declined to steady-state levels at approximately age 450 days, signalling exit from puberty and therefore the beginning of ageing. This time point correlated to initial formation of a tidemark in the osteochondral tissue sections. CONCLUSIONS Horses may be considered pubescent at age 225-450 days, and post pubescent and ageing after age 450 days. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE Defining the normal post natal to post pubescent concentrations for serum IGF-I and serum IGFBP-3 establishes subsets of animals for age-related studies and may be used to monitor horses for abnormally high IGF-I concentrations due to natural disease or subsequent to systemic growth hormone administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- L A Fortier
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
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Epiphyseal cartilage canal blood supply to the tarsus of foals and relationship to osteochondrosis. Equine Vet J 2010; 40:30-9. [DOI: 10.2746/042516407x239836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Mirams M, Tatarczuch L, Ahmed YA, Pagel CN, Jeffcott LB, Davies HMS, Mackie EJ. Altered gene expression in early osteochondrosis lesions. J Orthop Res 2009; 27:452-7. [PMID: 18932239 DOI: 10.1002/jor.20761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Osteochondrosis is a condition involving defective endochondral ossification and retention of cartilage in subchondral bone. The pathophysiology of this condition is poorly characterized, but it has been proposed that the fundamental defect is failure of chondrocyte hypertrophy. The aim of the current study was to characterize phenotypic changes in chondrocytes associated with the initiation of osteochondrosis. Early lesions were induced in an equine model of osteochondrosis by feeding foals a high energy diet for 8 or 15 weeks. Lesions in articular-epiphyseal growth cartilage were examined histologically and by quantitative PCR analysis of expression of a number of genes representative of pathways that regulate chondrocyte behavior during endochondral ossification. There were more cells present in clusters in the lesions compared to normal articular cartilage. Expression of matrix metalloproteinase-13, type I collagen, type X collagen, and Runx2 mRNA was significantly greater in the lesions compared to normal cartilage from the same joint. Expression of vascular endothelial growth factor, type II collagen, connective tissue growth factor, aggrecan, Sox9, and fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 mRNA was not significantly different in lesions than in control cartilage. These observations suggest that osteochondrosis does not result from failure of chondrocytes to undergo hypertrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michiko Mirams
- School of Veterinary Science, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
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21
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Verwilghen DR, Vanderheyden L, Franck T, Busoni V, Enzerink E, Gangl M, Lejeune JP, van Galen G, Grulke S, Serteyn D. Variations of plasmatic concentrations of Insulin-like Growth Factor-I in post-pubescent horses affected with developmental osteochondral lesions. Vet Res Commun 2009; 33:701-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s11259-009-9219-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2008] [Accepted: 03/11/2009] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Lecocq M, Girard CA, Fogarty U, Beauchamp G, Richard H, Laverty S. Cartilage matrix changes in the developing epiphysis: early events on the pathway to equine osteochondrosis? Equine Vet J 2008; 40:442-54. [PMID: 18487100 DOI: 10.2746/042516408x297453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY The earliest osteochondrosis (OC) microscopic lesion reported in the literature was present in the femorotibial joint of a 2-day-old foal suggesting that OC lesions and factors initiating them may arise prior to birth. OBJECTIVE To examine the developing equine epiphysis to detect histological changes that could be precursors to OC lesions. METHODS Osteochondral samples from 21 equine fetuses and 13 foals were harvested from selected sites in the scapulohumeral, humeroradial, metacarpophalangeal, femoropatellar, femorotibial, tarsocrural and metatarsophalangeal joints. Sections were stained with safranin O and picrosiruis red to assess cartilage changes and structural arrangement of the collagen matrix. RESULTS Extracellular matrix changes observed included perivascular areas of paleness of the proteoglycan matrix associated with hypocellularity and, sometimes, necrotic chondrocytes. These changes were most abundant in the youngest fetuses and in the femoropatellar/femorotibial (FP/FT) joints. Indentations of the ossification front were also observed in most specimens, but, most frequently, in scapulohumeral and FP/FT joints. A cartilage canal was almost always present in these indentations. The vascular density of the cartilage was higher in the youngest fetuses. In these fetuses, the most vascularised joints were the metacarpo- and metatarsophalangeal joints but their cartilage canals regressed quickly. After birth, the most vascularised cartilage was present in the FP/FT joint. Articular cartilage differentiated into 4 zones early in fetal life and the epiphyseal cartilage also had a distinct zonal cartilage structure. A striking difference was observed in the collagen structure at the junction of the proliferative and hypertrophic zones where OCD lesions occur. CONCLUSION Matrix and ossification front changes were frequently observed and significantly associated with cartilage canals suggesting that they may be physiological changes associated with matrix remodelling and development. The collagen structure was variable through the growing epiphysis and a differential in biomechanical properties at focal sites may predispose them to injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Lecocq
- Département de sciences cliniques, Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, Québec, Canada
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Olstad K, Cnudde V, Masschaele B, Thomassen R, Dolvik NI. Micro-computed tomography of early lesions of osteochondrosis in the tarsus of foals. Bone 2008; 43:574-83. [PMID: 18579463 DOI: 10.1016/j.bone.2008.04.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2007] [Revised: 04/04/2008] [Accepted: 04/17/2008] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Osteochondrosis (OC) is an important developmental orthopedic disease of human and equine patients. The disease is defined as a focal disturbance in enchondral ossification. In horses, the disturbance can occur secondary to failure of the blood supply to growth cartilage. Diagnosis of the early, subclinical stages that can clarify the etiology is currently confined to cross-sectional histological examination. The potential for micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) with angiography to detect early lesions of OC has not yet been investigated. MATERIALS AND METHODS Nine Standardbred foals bred from parents with OC of the tarso-crural joint were sacrificed at weekly intervals from birth to 7 weeks of age. Permanent barium angiograms were created within one hind limb post mortem, and samples collected from two predilection sites for OC within the tarso-crural joint of the perfused hind limb. The resulting 18 sample blocks were scanned with a custom-built micro-CT equipment set-up, and analyzed as 2D slices and 3D volume rendered models before sectioning for conventional histological examination. RESULTS Histological examination identified eight early lesions in seven locations within six joints from the nine foals. Micro-CT with angiography was able to detect seven lesions in the same sites as histological examination. Lesions consisted of non-perfused foci within growth cartilage. No perfused vessels exited from subchondral bone deep to any lesion. Six of the seven lesions were associated with focal defects in the subchondral bone plate. Evidence of ongoing ossification was seen in three out of the seven lesions and included one separate center of ossification. CONCLUSION Micro-CT was a useful technique for examination of early lesions of OC. The results of micro-CT were compatible with failure of cartilage canal vessels at the point where they cross the ossification front. Resultant areas of ischemic chondronecrosis were associated with focal delay in enchondral ossification as visualized in 3D volume rendered models. Micro-CT combined with histology clarified the role of different forms of ossification in the secondary repair responses to lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin Olstad
- Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Department of Companion Animal Clinical Sciences, Section for Equine Medicine and Surgery, Post box 8146 Dep., N-0033 Oslo, Norway.
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Staniar WB, Kronfeld DS, Akers RM, Harris PA. Insulin-like growth factor I in growing thoroughbreds. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl) 2007; 91:390-9. [PMID: 17845246 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0396.2006.00666.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this longitudinal study was to characterize growth and plasma insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) concentrations in pasture-raised thoroughbreds fed two sources of dietary energy. Mares and foals were randomly assigned to either a sugar and starch (SS) or fat and fibre (FF)-rich feed, and plasma IGF-I and growth were measured once a month from 1 to 16 months of age. These dependent variables were also compared with day length and ambient temperature. There was an association between plasma IGF-I concentration and average daily gain (ADG) (r = 0.32, p < 0.001). There were also clear seasonal patterns in both ADG and plasma IGF-I, with high values in June and May, and a low value in March. Plasma IGF-I and ADG were positively associated with day length and temperature. Plasma IGF-I was never higher (p > 0.10) in the FF group when compared with the SS group, and was higher in the SS group during a rapid growth phase in the spring of year 2 (p < 0.10). The results establish an association between ADG and IGF-I in the horse and indicate that environment and age may influence this relationship. In addition, plasma IGF-I is influenced by dietary energy source at particular times of year. This link has important implications in designing feeding management strategies that are aimed at addressing skeletal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- W B Staniar
- Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
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Olstad K, Ytrehus B, Ekman S, Carlson CS, Dolvik NI. Early lesions of osteochondrosis in the distal tibia of foals. J Orthop Res 2007; 25:1094-105. [PMID: 17415757 DOI: 10.1002/jor.20375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Material available for research into osteochondrosis (OC) in humans tends to represent chronic lesions. Comparative studies of early lesions in young animals are, therefore, important in clarifying the pathogenesis of OC in humans. Recent studies in pigs provide strong evidence that lesions of articular OC are associated with a focal failure in the cartilage canal vascular supply to epiphyseal growth cartilage (articular-epiphyseal cartilage complex excluding the articular cartilage). The purpose of the present study was to examine histological sections from a specific predilection site for articular OC in the distal tibia of a large number of young foals to determine if the same is true in horses. Material from the distal tibiae of 100 foals aged from 191 days of gestation to 153 days old was collected from routine submissions of fetuses and foals for post mortem examination. The tibiae were band-sawed into slabs, and selected slabs were processed for histology, stained with hematoxylin and eosin, and examined using light microscopy. Early subclinical developmental stages of OC were found in the most common site for clinical OC lesions of horses in nine of 100 foals aged 12 to 122 days old. All lesions contained areas of chondrocyte necrosis that were associated with cartilage canal necrosis in five of nine foals. Five of these foals also had focal disruption of enchondral ossification at the chondro-osseous junction in the same site. Early lesions purported to play a role in the initial stages of articular OC in the distal tibia of horses were characterized by chondrocyte necrosis and likely occurred secondary to a failure of cartilage canal vascular supply to epiphyseal growth cartilage. The similarities in appearance between early lesions of piglets and foals suggest that information gained in one species may be transferable to others, including humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin Olstad
- The Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Department of Companion Animal Clinical Sciences, Section for Equine Medicine and Surgery, Post-box 8146 Dep., N-0033 Oslo, Norway.
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Effect of Prophylactic Intramuscular Administration of Polysulfated Glycosaminoglycan on Developmental and Traumatic Joint Injuries in Thoroughbred Foals. J Equine Vet Sci 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2007.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Gangl M, Serteyn D, Lejeune JP, Schneider N, Grulke S, Peters F, Vila T, Deby-Dupont G, Deberg M, Henrotin Y. A type II-collagen derived peptide and its nitrated form as new markers of inflammation and cartilage degradation in equine osteochondral lesions. Res Vet Sci 2007; 82:68-75. [PMID: 16780906 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2006.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2004] [Revised: 03/19/2006] [Accepted: 03/30/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Markers of cartilage breakdown enable studying the degradation of cartilage matrix in equine joint pathologies. This study was designed to determine the levels of Coll2-1, a peptide of the triple helix of type II collagen, and Coll2-1NO(2), its nitrated form in the plasma of healthy horses (controls; n=37) and horses suffering from osteochondrosis (n=34). Clinical and arthroscopic scores were attributed reflecting the severity of lesions and were related to the plasma levels of Coll2-1 and Coll2-1NO(2). The median of Coll2-1 was significantly higher in the control group, whereas the mean of Coll2-1NO(2) showed significant elevation in the pathological group. However, the measurement means of scoring classes did not vary significantly. The markers were able to differentiate the group of horses suffering from osteochondrosis from the group of healthy horses. The elevation of Coll2-1NO(2) in the pathological group indicates an inflammation, mediated through reactive oxygen species and/or increased myeloperoxidase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Gangl
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Large Animal Surgery, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Sart Tilman B41, B-4000 Liège, Belgium.
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Gee E, Davies M, Firth E, Jeffcott L, Fennessy P, Mogg T. Osteochondrosis and copper: Histology of articular cartilage from foals out of copper supplemented and non-supplemented dams. Vet J 2007; 173:109-17. [PMID: 16314126 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2005.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Copper (Cu) supplementation of dams in late gestation may be protective against articular cartilage abnormalities in foals. Articular cartilage was harvested from 22 Thoroughbred foals at 160 days of age, at sites predisposed to osteochondrosis (OC), and examined for evidence of early cartilage abnormalities and established dyschondroplastic (DCP) lesions to determine if there were any significant differences due to mare Cu supplementation by injection during late gestation, or foal liver Cu concentration. Cu supplemented mares received calcium Cu edetate injections in late gestation (250 mg at around 220, 248, 276 and 304 days gestation, then every two weeks until foaling). Foals were euthanased at 160 days of age and articular cartilage was harvested from four defined sites. Samples were examined for histological appearance of chondrocytes after staining with haematoxylin and eosin, and were also stained with toluidine blue to indicate proteoglycan content. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity was detected by histochemistry, and histocytochemical techniques were used to determine the expression of cathepsin B. Cu supplementation of the dam, or liver Cu concentration of the foal at birth or 160 days of age had no statistically significant effect on the frequency of cartilage irregularities observed grossly, or abnormalities detected histologically at four defined sites. ALP expression was similar in all samples. Cathepsin B expression varied between sites, and was seen in chondrocyte clusters. The intensity of toludine blue staining varied between sites. Minor histological cartilage abnormalities were observed in cartilage from clinically normal animals. These abnormalities might be 'early' dyschondroplastic lesions, which could resolve or progress. The role of Cu in the development, resolution or progression of dyschondroplastic lesions is poorly understood.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Gee
- Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Private Bag 11 222, Palmerston North, New Zealand.
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Courtland HW, Wright GM, Root RG, DeMont ME. Comparative equilibrium mechanical properties of bovine and lamprey cartilaginous tissues. J Exp Biol 2003; 206:1397-408. [PMID: 12624174 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.00264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In contrast to all other vertebrate cartilages, the major extracellular matrix protein of lamprey cartilages is not collagen. Instead, there exists a unique family of noncollagenous structural proteins, the significance of which is not completely understood. A custom-built uniaxial testing apparatus was used to quantify and compare equilibrium stress-relaxation behavior (equilibrium moduli, stress decay behavior, recovery times and relaxation times) of (1) lamprey pericardial cartilages with perichondria tested in tension (young adult and aged), (2) annular cartilages without perichondria tested in compression (young adult and aged) and (3) bovine auricular cartilage samples without perichondria tested in both tension and compression. Results of this study demonstrated that all cartilages were highly viscoelastic but with varying relaxation times; approximately 120 min for annular and pericardial cartilages and 30 min for bovine auricular cartilages. For mean equilibrium moduli, young adult lamprey annular cartilages (0.71 MPa) and pericardial cartilages (2.87 MPa) were found to be statistically different. The mean moduli of all bovine auricular cartilages were statistically identical to lamprey cartilages except in the case of aged adult pericardial cartilages, which were statistically larger than all other cartilages at 4.85 MPa. Taken together, the results of this study suggest that lamprey cartilages are able to exhibit mechanical properties largely similar to those of mammalian cartilages despite unique structural proteins and differences in extracellular matrix organization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayden-William Courtland
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, UPEI Atlantic Veterinary College, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, C1A 4P3, Canada
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Jeffcott LB, Henson FM. Studies on growth cartilage in the horse and their application to aetiopathogenesis of dyschondroplasia (osteochondrosis). Vet J 1998; 156:177-92. [PMID: 9883086 DOI: 10.1016/s1090-0233(98)80121-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The importance of osteochondrosis (dyschondroplasia) to the horse industry has been well documented since it was first recorded 50 years ago. The condition is known to be multifactorial in origin, arising from focal failure of endochondral ossification at predilection sites in articular/epiphyseal growth cartilage, but specific information on its aetiopathogenesis is sparse. This paper reviews the current knowledge of growth cartilage metabolism and the process of normal endochondral ossification in the horse. It highlights the localization of various protein products of chondrocytes and the differences in the zones of articular cartilage. In the early focal lesions (referred to as dyschondroplasia) there are alterations in the chondrocytes, extracellular matrix and some of the local protein products. The most obvious feature is an alteration in matrix metabolism which may be responsible for triggering a range of other factors leading to the development of a retained core of cartilage and a primary lesion of dyschondroplasia. Based on available evidence, a preliminary hypothesis for pathogenesis is presented. This suggests that there are a number of factors capable of initiating the condition. One of these involves high circulating insulin levels from high energy feeding which may affect chondrocyte maturation leading to altered matrix metabolism and faulty mineralization resulting in the formation of cartilage cores which characterize the condition. Further research to test this hypothesis is needed before there can be a rational basis for prophylaxis.
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