The human-horse relationship: how much do we know?

Human Health Benefits of Non-Conventional Companion Animals: A Narrative Review

Research investigating health benefits from household human-animal bonds has focused mostly on bonds with companion dogs, cats, and horses. Wellbeing benefits associated with other companion animal species such as birds, fish, and reptiles are described and anecdotally reported, but there is little empirical literature supporting this. The literature suggests that health benefits of companion animals are predicated on human perceptions of the animal rather than the animal's species. Therefore, relationships with non-conventional companion animals of diverse species may benefit the health of their human guardians as do dogs, cats, and horses. This narrative review summarizes the current literature exploring perceived health benefits gained from non-conventional companion animals. Searches were conducted for published literature and grey literature up to October 2022 across PsycINFO and PubMed databases, and Newsbank media database for commercial media publications. Nineteen studies and 10 media articles were included in the review. Gaps in the literature include a lack of rigorous research to investigate the health benefits of non-conventional companion animals. Non-conventional companion animals may benefit their guardians by providing social support through acting as attachment figures, facilitating social opportunities and daily routines, fulfilling cognitive needs, and recreating restorative capacities of mindfully observing natural landscapes. Further high-quality research into the human-non-conventional companion animal bond is warranted.

Champing at the Bit for Improvements: A Review of Equine Welfare in Equestrian Sports in the United Kingdom

Equestrian sports, including racing (e.g., flat, steeple-chasing, harness or donkey derby); show-jumping; cross-country; dressage; polo; polocrosse; endurance; carriage driving; vaulting and hunting; are hugely popular in the UK, and they involve a significant number of people, both as participants and spectators, and tens of thousands of equids. In this paper, we discuss animal welfare as a complex and disputed issue, clarifying what the term means and how it can be measured. We review many aspects of welfare risk to equids used for sport, addressing issues encountered throughout their lives, including housing, feeding, veterinary intervention, shoeing, handling, training, breeding and equipment. This is followed by a unique exploration of the institutions and social processes influencing equine welfare. The institutional components comprise the rules of competition, the equids, attributes of the stakeholders and the space where participants strive to achieve a common purpose. We endeavour to untangle the most significant elements that create barriers or provide opportunities for equine welfare improvement. We expose the challenges faced by a broad range of stakeholders with differing ethics, attitudes and values. Evidently, there are many welfare risks to which equids used in sports continue to be exposed. It is also evident that significant improvements have occurred in recent times, but there remains a barrier to reducing the risks to an acceptable level. We conclude with recommendations regarding a process for change, involvement of stakeholders and management of knowledge to improve equine welfare that involves identifying and prioritising the risk factors and ultimately leading to interventions, further research and/or education.

The need for formal reflexivity in conservation science

Conservation issues are often complicated by sociopolitical controversies that reflect competing philosophies and values regarding natural systems, animals, and people. Effective conservation outcomes require managers to engage myriad influences (social, cultural, political, and economic, as well as ecological). The contribution of conservation scientists who generate the information on which solutions rely is constrained if they are unable to acknowledge how personal values and disciplinary paradigms influence their research and conclusions. Conservation challenges involving controversial species provide an opportunity to reflect on the paradigms and value systems that underpin the discipline and practice of conservation science. Recent analyses highlight the ongoing reliance on normative values in conservation. We frame our discussion around controversies over feral horses (Equus ferus caballus) in the Canadian West and New Zealand and suggest that a lack of transparency and reflexivity regarding normative values continues to prevent conservation practitioners from finding resilient conservation solutions. We suggest that growing scrutiny and backlash to many normative conservation objectives necessitates formal reflexivity methods in conservation biology research, similar to those required of researchers in social science disciplines. Moreover, given that much conservation research and action continues to prioritize Western normative values regarding nature and conservation, we suggest that adopting reflexive methods more broadly is an important step toward more socially just research and practice. Formalizing such methods and requiring reflexivity in research will not only encourage reflection on how personal and disciplinary value systems influence conservation work but could more effectively engage people with diverse perspectives and values in conservation and encourage more novel and resilient conservation outcomes, particularly when dealing with controversial species.

A new approach to horse welfare based on systems thinking

Globally, calls for change in the horse industry to prioritise the health and well-being of domestic horses (Equus caballus) are reaching a critical threshold. Horse behaviour deemed undesirable or inconvenient by owners (henceforth referred to as undesirable behaviour) is reported across all aspects of a horse's life and may indicate a welfare issue. This study proposes a reconceptualisation of undesirable horse behaviour as a complex challenge based on systems thinking. Emerging from the natural sciences, systems thinking is an interdisciplinary approach to complex challenges (such as undesirable behaviour) as dynamic, highly interconnected networks of components and feedback relationships. This critical literature review examined the undesirable behaviours studied, the disciplines conducting research and their underpinning assumptions to identify opportunities for approaching research differently. Four themes emerged from the literature: undesirable behaviour is typically studied with unarticulated assumptions and in individual disciplines; behaviours are typically studied in isolation with the complexity of horse-human interactions generally not considered; management of behaviour typically has an anthropocentric linear 'cause and effect' focus; and solutions to undesirable behaviour are often short-term 'fixes' resulting in poor horse outcomes. From these, we outline the opportunities that each provide the next generation of horse research in terms of interdisciplinarity, systems thinking and management. Undesirable horse behaviour in a horse-human system is conceptually mapped in terms of factors associated with the behaviour (eg housing, stress, diet), and the relationships between them. Systems thinking offers a way to integrate multiple disciplines and identify and navigate new solutions to promote horse welfare.

The use of the roter interaction analysis system in assessing veterinary student clinical communication skills during equine wellness examinations in rural Kentucky, USA: A pilot study

BACKGROUND

Effective clinical communication can aid veterinarians in building good client relationships, increase adherence to recommendations and, ultimately, improve patient health and welfare. However, available information on veterinary communication in the equine context is limited. The objective of this study was to describe the communication of veterinary students in the equine environment who had previous communication training. Additionally, we assessed the suitability of the Roter Interaction Analysis System (RIAS) for the analysis of audio-video recordings of equine wellness consultations.

METHODS

Twenty-seven equine wellness consultations performed by second-year Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine students were recorded in rural Kentucky, United States of America. Recordings were submitted to a professional coder who applied the RIAS to the equine context by expanding or adjusting code definitions.

RESULTS

A substantial amount of utterances (i.e. segments of speech) were allocated to core communication skills including building rapport (30%), facilitation and client activation (24%) and education and counselling (23%). There was a large variation in utterances used among consultations of the same veterinary student and students; they did not appear anxious or nervous.

CONCLUSIONS

Students made use of core communication skills, indicating that experiences from pre-clinical training could be transferred to equine practice. Furthermore, this study demonstrated that the RIAS could be considered for consecutive studies aiming to provide observational data on clinical communication in the equine context.

From the Eurasian Steppes to the Roman Circuses: A Review of Early Development of Horse Breeding and Management

Simple Summary

Horses were domesticated later than any other major livestock species. Their role in shaping ancient civilizations cannot be overestimated. As a primary means of transportation, an essential asset in warfare, and later one of the key elements of circus entertainment, horses quickly became luxurious goods. Vast amounts of money were invested in the horse industry resulted resulting in the rapid development of horse breeding and husbandry. This review examines paleogenetic, archeological, and classical studies on managing horses in antiquity. Many ancient approaches and practices in horse management are still relevant today and some of them, now abandoned, are worth re-examination.

Abstract

The domestication of the horse began about 5500 years ago in the Eurasian steppes. In the following millennia horses spread across the ancient world, and their role in transportation and warfare affected every ancient culture. Ownership of horses became an indicator of wealth and social status. The importance of horses led to a growing interest in their breeding and management. Many phenotypic traits, such as height, behavior, and speed potential, have been proven to be a subject of selection; however, the details of ancient breeding practices remain mostly unknown. From the fourth millennium BP, through the Iron Age, many literature sources thoroughly describe horse training systems, as well as various aspects of husbandry, many of which are still in use today. The striking resemblance of ancient and modern equine practices leaves us wondering how much was accomplished through four thousand years of horse breeding.

Qualitative study of the influence of horse-owner relationship during some key events within a horse's lifetime

BACKGROUND

There is a lack of research exploring how the horse-human relationship influences horse owners' decision-making. The aim of this study was to investigate how an owner's relationship with their horse affects decisions around key events during their horse's lifetime.

METHODS

An online survey and semi-structured telephone interviews were conducted with horse-owners. The online survey asked horse owners about their experiences of decision-making and their relationship with their horse and identified interview participants. Two semi-structured interviews were conducted with 11 horse owners on their experience of purchasing and euthanasia of horses. Interviews were recorded and transcribed, and thematic analysis was performed.

RESULTS

There were 938 responses to the online survey. The majority of owners considered their horse to be a member of the family (92.9%, 808/870). The mean amount spent annually on their horse was £9215 (range £324-14,240). Seven themes were identified in the interviews including mismatching of horse and rider; financial, time, welfare and personal obligations involved in horse ownership; shared-decision making; the horse's quality of life; guilt and responsibility grief surrounding euthanasia decisions.

CONCLUSION

This study highlighted the strong owner-horse relationship, the significant obligations involved in horse ownership and the emotional impact of euthanasia decisions.

The Impact of the Sex of Handlers and Riders on the Reported Social Confidence, Compliance and Touch Sensitivity of Horses in Their Care

Simple Summary

Any influence of the sex of the human partner in human–horse interactions on the behaviour of horses is currently largely anecdotal. Associations between the sex of humans and equine behaviour may have welfare implications. Our study investigates observations of ridden and non-ridden horse behaviour, as reported by respondents (n = 1420) to the Equine Behaviour and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ). Results reveal some human sex-related differences between horses handled and ridden by male and female humans. Horses ridden or handled by male humans were more likely to be difficult to catch and defensive when approached, but less likely to pull on the reins/brace the neck or toss their head. The study revealed the importance of considering the sex of the rider or handler when investigating equine behaviour.

Abstract

Current evidence of how human sex-related differences in riders and handlers may influence horse behaviour is limited. The Equine Behaviour Assessment and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ) was used to collect demographic data on riders and handlers (n = 1420) and behavioural data on their horses. It includes demographic items about the sex of the respondent and how frequently the horse has been ridden or handled by male and female humans. The questionnaire then gathers observations on the horse’s behaviour on the ground and under saddle or when driven. Using E-BARQ’s battery of 97 questions, the current study showed differences in ridden and non-ridden horse behaviour that were related to the sex of the rider or handler. Data were evaluated using multivariate analysis and revealed that horses handled by male humans were significantly more difficult to catch (t-value = −3.11; p = 0.002) and significantly more defensive when approached (t-value = −2.104; p = 0.035), but significantly less likely to pull on the reins/brace the neck or toss their head (t-value 1.980; p = 0.048) than horses handled more frequently by female humans. The differences found between male and female horse handlers suggest that sex is an important factor to consider when understanding equine behaviour. Our study explored reported differences in confidence, handling and working compliance and touch sensitivity among horses ridden and handled by male and female humans and suggested further research into how these differences are gendered.

What People Really Think About Safety around Horses: The Relationship between Risk Perception, Values and Safety Behaviours

The equestrian industry reports high rates of serious injuries, illness and fatalities when compared to other high-risk sports and work environments. To address these ongoing safety concerns, a greater understanding of the relationship between human risk perception, values and safety behaviours is required. This paper presents results from an international survey that explored relationships between a respondents' willingness to take risk during daily activities along with, their perceptions of risk and behaviours during horse-related interactions. Respondents' comments around risk management principles and safety-first inspirations were also analysed. We examined what humans think about hazardous situations or activities and how they managed risk with suitable controls. Analysis identified three important findings. First, safe behaviours around horses were associated with safety training (formal and/or informal). Second, unsafe behaviours around horses were associated with higher levels of equestrian experience as well as income from horse-related work. Finally, findings revealed a general acceptance of danger and imminent injury during horse interactions. This may explain why some respondents de-emphasised or 'talked-down' the importance of safety-first principles. In this paper we predominantly reported quantitative findings of respondents self-reported safety behaviours, general and horse-related risk perceptions despite injury or illness. We discussed the benefits of improved safety-first principles like training, risk assessments, rider-horse match with enriched safety communications to enhance risk-mitigation during human-horse interactions.

Reported Behavioural Differences between Geldings and Mares Challenge Sex-Driven Stereotypes in Ridden Equine Behaviour

Simple Summary

It has been shown that people within the horse industry have preconceived ideas about horse behaviour, temperament and rideability, based solely on the sex of the horse. Such ideas can have welfare implications, if personnel allow bias to affect their interactions with particular horses. Such welfare implications include employment of harsher training methods, and increased horse wastage. The current study explored data on riders’ and trainers’ reports of ridden horse behaviour. Reported sex-related behavioural differences were evaluated based on 1233 responses from the pilot study of the Equine Behaviour and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ) survey. Results from the study suggest there are some sex-related differences in behaviour between male and female horses; geldings are more likely to chew on rugs and lead ropes when tied, and mares are more likely to move away when being caught in paddock. However, there was no evidence of sex-related differences associated with behaviour when ridden which may warrant further investigation. Findings from this study may be used to educate riders and trainers about the need to regard behaviour and motivation in ridden horses as sex-neutral.

Abstract

Horse trainers and riders may have preconceived ideas of horse temperament based solely on the sex of the horse. A study (n = 1233) of horse enthusiasts (75% of whom had more than 8 years of riding experience) revealed that riders prefer geldings over mares and stallions. While these data may reflect different sex preferences in horses used for sport, they may also reduce the chances of some horses reaching their performance potential. Further, an unfounded sex prejudice is likely to contribute to unconscious bias when perceiving unwanted behaviours, simplistically attributing them to demographic characteristics rather than more complex legacies of training and prior learning. The current study analysed reported sex-related behavioural differences in ridden and non-ridden horses using data from responses to the pilot study of the Equine Behaviour Assessment and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ) survey. Respondents (n = 1233) reported on the behaviour of their horse using a 151-item questionnaire. Data were searched for responses relating to mares and geldings, and 110 traits with the greatest percentage difference scores between mares and geldings were selected were tested for univariate significance at p < 0.2. Multivariable modelling of the effect of sex (mare or gelding) on remaining traits was assessed by ordinal logistic regression, using a cumulative proportional log odds model. Results revealed mares were significantly more likely to move away when being caught compared to geldings (p = 0.003). Geldings were significantly more likely to chew on lead ropes when tied (p = 0.003) and to chew on rugs (p = 0.024). However, despite sex-related differences in these non-ridden behaviours, there was no evidence of any significant sex-related differences in the behaviours of the horses when ridden. This finding suggests that ridden horse behaviour is not sexually dimorphic or that particular horse sports variously favour one sex over another.

It's all about the sex, or is it? Humans, horses and temperament

We propose that the anthropomorphic application of gender stereotypes to animals influences human-animal interactions and human expectations, often with negative consequences for female animals. An online survey was conducted to explore riders’ perceptions of horse temperament and suitability for ridden work, based on horse sex. The questionnaire asked respondents to allocate three hypothetical horses (a mare, gelding and stallion) to four riders compromising a woman, man, girl and boy. Riders were described as equally capable of riding each horse and each horse was described as suitable for all riders. Participants were also asked which horses (mares, geldings or stallions) were most suitable for the three equestrian disciplines of show-jumping, dressage and trail-riding. Logistic regression analyses were conducted to investigate people’s perceptions about suitability of horse types for particular riders, to evaluate if age, strength or gender were important in rider choice and to investigate riders’ allocation of various descriptors to a gelding, stallion or mare. There were 1,233 survey respondents, 94% of whom were female and 75% of whom were riders with at least eight years of experience. Binomial logistic regression revealed the girl had 2.5 times the odds of being allocated the gelding compared to the boy (p < 0.001). Respondents were significantly more likely to allocate the stallion to the man and nearly 50% of respondents did not allocate a horse to the boy, even though they ranked rider gender as least important to their choice (p < 0.001). In a forced choice selection of a positive or negative descriptor from a series of nine paired terms to describe horse temperament, a greater proportion of respondents assigned geldings positive ratings on terms such as calm, trainable, reliable and predictable. In terms of suitability for the three equestrian disciplines of show-jumping, dressage and trail-riding, participants overwhelmingly chose geldings for trail-riding, with mares being least preferred for both dressage and show-jumping disciplines. The results suggest that female riders are entering the horse-human dyad with gendered ideas about horse temperament and view horse-riding as an activity primarily for women and girls. This could have far-reaching implications for equine training and welfare.

A Study of Traveller Horse Owners' Attitudes to Horse Care and Welfare Using an Equine Body Condition Scoring System

Traveller horses are often perceived to be exposed to poor welfare due to Travellers' traditional way of horsemanship. However, few studies have investigated Traveller horse welfare. Hence, the present study aims to explore Traveller horse owners' attitudes to horse care and welfare. Semi-structured interviews and discussion groups examined 14 Irish Traveller horse owners' attitudes and approach to horse ownership. Additionally, a body condition scoring (BCS) instrument was assessed for its accuracy and ease of use when applied by Traveller horse owners. Additionally, the BCS system was used to assess 18 horses. Results show that Travellers have a good understanding of horses' natural behaviours and environment, which is reflected in their management practices. However, barriers to improved welfare are land availability, since landowners are often reluctant to lease to Travellers, and the impoundment of horses as a consequence of fly grazing, under the Control of Horses Act 1996 (Ireland). Furthermore, Travellers regarded the BCS as a useful tool, but would require training to apply the scoring successfully. The results suggest that attitudes and management practices are favourable, but Travellers have limited means to overcome barriers. Therefore, it is necessary to increase capacity building and assist with the acquisition of land.

Why Should Human-Animal Interactions Be Included in Research of Working Equids' Welfare?

Simple Summary

Appropriate strategies aimed at improving the welfare of working equids should include the assessment of their welfare status, as well as the identification of the human attributes that influence owner-equine interactions. From a human´s point of view, empathy, attitudes towards animals, perception of animal pain and the owner´s locus of control are some of the psychological attributes that modulate the human-equine relationships that can affect equids’ welfare. There is, however, still little research dedicated to identifying and assessing the owner’s psychological attributes that underlie their behaviours, and that may be implicated in the welfare of their working equids. This review aims to point out why the inclusion of human psychological attributes that modulate human-animal interactions, can benefit welfare research in working equids. We recommend that in order to advance in the improvement of working equids’ welfare on a global scale, an integral understanding of those human psychological attributes that influence the owner’s behaviour and modulate owner-equine interactions must be established and taken into account in future studies.

Abstract

The livelihood of working horses’ owners and their families is intimately linked to the welfare of their equids. A proper understanding of human-animal interactions, as well as the main factors that modulate them, is essential for establishing strategies oriented to improve the welfare of animals and their caretakers. To date, there is still a paucity of research dedicated to the identification and assessment of the human psychological attributes that affect the owner–equine interaction, and how these could affect the welfare of working equids. However, some studies have shown that empathy, attitudes towards animals, human perception of animal pain and the owner´s locus of control are some of the psychological attributes that participate in human-equine interactions and that these can result in poor welfare of working equids. A better understanding of the relationship between human attributes and equids’ welfare can provide an opportunity to improve the quality of interactions between owners and their working equids and thus improve their welfare. This review aims to explain why the inclusion of human psychological attributes that modulate the human-animal interactions can benefit welfare research in working equids. The role that empathy, perception of animal pain and locus of control play in the promotion of good welfare in working equids is emphasized.

Look Before You Leap: What Are the Obstacles to Risk Calculation in the Equestrian Sport of Eventing?

Simple Summary

This paper examines a number of methods for calculating injury risk for riders in the equestrian sport of eventing, and suggests that the primary locus of risk is the action of the horse jumping, and the jump itself. The paper argues that risk calculation should therefore focus first on this locus.

Abstract

All horse-riding is risky. In competitive horse sports, eventing is considered the riskiest, and is often characterised as very dangerous. But based on what data? There has been considerable research on the risks and unwanted outcomes of horse-riding in general, and on particular subsets of horse-riding such as eventing. However, there can be problems in accessing accurate, comprehensive and comparable data on such outcomes, and in using different calculation methods which cannot compare like with like. This paper critically examines a number of risk calculation methods used in estimating risk for riders in eventing, including one method which calculates risk based on hours spent in the activity and in one case concludes that eventing is more dangerous than motorcycle racing. This paper argues that the primary locus of risk for both riders and horses is the jump itself, and the action of the horse jumping. The paper proposes that risk calculation in eventing should therefore concentrate primarily on this locus, and suggests that eventing is unlikely to be more dangerous than motorcycle racing. The paper proposes avenues for further research to reduce the likelihood and consequences of rider and horse falls at jumps.

Could it be colic? Horse-owner decision making and practices in response to equine colic

BACKGROUND

Little is known about lay understanding and decision making in response to colic. Horse-owners/carers are key to identifying colic and initiating veterinary intervention. Understanding how owners think and act in relation to colic could assist veterinary surgeons in tailoring information about colic with the aim of improving colic outcomes.

METHODS

A mixed methods approach was employed including qualitative in-depth interviews and a cross-sectional questionnaire. Qualitative data were analysed using Grounded theory to conceptualise processes involved in horse-owner management of colic. Following this, a cross-sectional survey was designed to test these concepts. Cluster analysis explored the role of the human-horse relationship upon colic management strategies.

RESULTS

Fifteen horse-owners with a range of colic experience participated in the interviews. A theoretical conceptual model was developed and described how horse-owners' recognised, assessed and responded to colic. Three main management strategies were used including 'wait and see', 'lay treatments' and 'seek veterinary assistance'. Actions in response to colic were moderated by owners' experience of colic and interpretation of the severity of colic signs. A postal questionnaire gathered data from 673 horse-owners from the North-West of the UK. The majority (605, 89.9%) of respondents were female. Cluster analysis revealed 5 meaningful groups of horse-owners based upon assessment of questionnaire items on the human-horse relationship. These groups included 2 professional and 3 amateur owner typologies. There were differences in the responses to some questionnaire items among the identified groups.

CONCLUSIONS

This study describes lay understanding and management of colic among a population of horse-owners from the North-West of the UK. The information may serve as a basis upon which to tailor existing programmes designed to educate owners about colic management strategies, and may inform veterinarians' interactions with horse-owners.

Welfare of Aged Horses

Simple Summary

Horses form a unique and special part of their owners' lives and aged horses are no exception. This review considers the health and management of aged horses. In particular how owners manage and care for their aged horses, what diseases and conditions they suffer from and what factors affect their quality of life. As an aged horse reaches the end of its life, an owner will be faced with judging its quality of life and making the decision to end its suffering. The veterinary surgeon plays an essential role in supporting the owner in this process.

Abstract

Horses form a unique and special part of their owners' lives and aged horses are no exception. This review considers the health and management of aged horses, including the role of the owner and their perceptions of aged horses, potential threats or risks to their welfare and finally, factors affecting quality of life and euthanasia of aged horses. Owners of aged horses are concerned about the health, welfare and quality of life of their aged animals. Yet surveys of management and preventive healthcare reflect that there may be some limitations to what owners are actually achieving in practice. They show declining management as horses age, particularly for the retired horse and insufficient appropriate preventive healthcare via veterinary surgeons. The veterinary surgeon plays an essential and influential role in preventive healthcare, management of diseases and disorders and ultimately in the decision making process for euthanasia of aged horses at the end of their lives. The value of aged horses should not be underestimated by veterinarians and others working with them and the continuing care of aged horses should be regarded with the same importance as the care of younger horses with more obvious monetary value.

The structure and regulation of the Irish equine industries: Links to considerations of equine welfare

The equine industries in Ireland are vibrant and growing. They are broadly classified into two sectors: Thoroughbred racing, and sports and leisure. This paper describes these sectors in terms of governance, education and training in equine welfare, and available data concerning horse numbers, identification, traceability and disposal. Animal welfare, and specifically equine welfare, has received increasing attention internationally. There is general acceptance of concepts such as animal needs and persons' responsibilities toward animals in their care, as expressed in the 'Five Freedoms'. As yet, little has been published on standards of equine welfare pertaining to Ireland, or on measures to address welfare issues here. This paper highlights the central role of horse identification and legal registration of ownership to safeguard the health and welfare of horses.