Interconnections between apoptotic, autophagic and necrotic pathways: implications for cancer therapy development

Combined sulforaphane and β-sitosterol mitigate olanzapine-induced metabolic disorders in rats: Insights on FOXO, PI3K/AKT, JAK/STAT3, and MAPK signaling pathways

One of the best antipsychotics for treating schizophrenia and bipolar disorders is olanzapine (OLA). However, its use is restricted owing to unfavorable adverse effects as liver damage, dyslipidemia, and weight gain. The primary objective of the present investigation was to examine the signaling mechanisms that underlie the metabolic disruption generated by OLA. Besides, the potential protective effect of sulforaphane (SFN) and β-sitosterol (βSS) against obesity and metabolic toxicity induced by OLA were inspected as well. A total of five groups of male Wistar rats were established, including the control, OLA, SFN+OLA, βSS+OLA, and the combination + OLA groups. Hepatic histopathology, biochemical analyses, ultimate body weights, liver function, oxidative stress, and pro-inflammatory cytokines were evaluated. In addition to the relative expression of FOXO, the signaling pathways for PI3K/AKT, JAK/STAT3, and MAPK were assessed as well. All biochemical and hepatic histopathological abnormalities caused by OLA were alleviated by SFN and/or βSS. A substantial decrease in systolic blood pressure (SBP), proinflammatory cytokines, serum lipid profile parameters, hepatic MDA, TBIL, AST, and ALT were reduced through SFN or/and βSS. To sum up, the detrimental effects of OLA are mediated by alterations in the Akt/FOXO3a/ATG12, Ras/SOS2/Raf-1/MEK/ERK1/2, and Smad3,4/TGF-β signaling pathways. The administration of SFN and/or βSS has the potential to mitigate the metabolic deficit, biochemical imbalances, hepatic histological abnormalities, and the overall unfavorable consequences induced by OLA by modulating the abovementioned signaling pathways.

The Function of Autophagy in the Initiation, and Development of Breast Cancer

Autophagy is a significant catabolic procedure that increases in stressful conditions. This mechanism is mostly triggered after damage to the organelles, the presence of unnatural proteins, and nutrient recycling in reaction to these stresses. One of the key points in this article is that cleaning and preserving damaged organelles and accumulated molecules through autophagy in normal cells helps prevent cancer. Since dysfunction of autophagy is associated with various diseases, including cancer, it has a dual function in tumor suppression and expansion. It has newly become clear that the regulation of autophagy can be used for the treatment of breast cancer, which has a promising effect of increasing the efficiency of anticancer treatment in a tissue- and cell-type-specific manner by affecting the fundamental molecular mechanisms. Regulation of autophagy and its function in tumorigenesis is a vital part of modern anticancer techniques. This study discusses the current advances related to the mechanisms that describe essential modulators of autophagy involved in the metastasis of cancers and the development of new breast cancer treatments.

Ferroptosis, autophagy, tumor and immunity

Ferroptosis was first proposed in 2012, a new form of cell death. Autophagy plays a crucial role in cell clearance and maintaining homeostasis. Autophagy is involved in the initial step of ferroptosis under the action of histone elements such as NCOA4, RAB7A, and BECN1. Ferroptosis and autophagy are involved in tumor progression, treatment, and drug resistance in the tumor microenvironment. In this review, we described the mechanisms of ferroptosis, autophagy, and tumor and immunotherapy, respectively, and emphasized the relationship between autophagy-related ferroptosis and tumor.

Different types of cell death and their shift in shaping disease

Cell death is the irreversible stop of life. It is also the basic physiological process of all organisms which involved in the embryonic development, organ maintenance and autoimmunity of the body. In recent years, we have gained more comprehension of the mechanism in cell death and have basically clarified the different types of "programmed cell death", such as apoptosis, necroptosis, autophagy, and pyroptosis, and identified some key genes in these processes. However, in these previous studies, the conversion between different cell death modes and their application in diseases are rarely explored. To sum up, although many valued discoveries have been discovered in the field of cell death in recent years, there are still many unknown problems to be solved in this field. Facts have proved that cell death is a very complex game, and a series of core players have the ability to destroy the delicate balance of the cell environment, from survival to death, from anti-inflammatory to pro-inflammatory. With the thorough research of the complex regulatory mechanism of cell death, there will certainly be exciting new research in this field in the next few years. The sake of this paper is to emphasize the complex mechanism of overturning the balance between different cell fates and provide relevant theoretical basis for the connection between cell death transformation and disease treatment in the future.

Exploring the Anti-Cancer Effects of Fish Bone Fermented Using Monascus purpureus: Induction of Apoptosis and Autophagy in Human Colorectal Cancer Cells

Fish bone fermented using Monascus purpureus (FBF) has total phenols and functional amino acids that contribute to its anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Colorectal cancer, one of the most prevalent cancers and the third largest cause of death worldwide, has become a serious threat to global health. This study investigates the anti-cancer effects of FBF (1, 2.5 or 5 mg/mL) on the cell growth and molecular mechanism of HCT-116 cells. The HCT-116 cell treatment with 2.5 or 5 mg/mL of FBF for 24 h significantly decreased cell viability (p < 0.05). The S and G2/M phases significantly increased by 88-105% and 25-43%, respectively (p < 0.05). Additionally, FBF increased the mRNA expression of caspase 8 (38-77%), protein expression of caspase 3 (34-94%), poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) (31-34%) and induced apoptosis (236-773%) of HCT-116 cells (p < 0.05). FBF also increased microtubule-associated protein 1B light chain 3 (LC3) (38-48%) and phosphoinositide 3 kinase class III (PI3K III) (32-53%) protein expression, thereby inducing autophagy (26-52%) of HCT-116 cells (p < 0.05). These results showed that FBF could inhibit HCT-116 cell growth by inducing S and G2/M phase arrest of the cell cycle, apoptosis and autophagy. Thus, FBF has the potential to treat colorectal cancer.

Dysfunctions, molecular mechanisms, and therapeutic strategies of pancreatic β-cells in diabetes

Pancreatic beta-cell death has been established as a critical mediator in the progression of type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Beta-cell death is associated with exacerbating hyperglycemia and insulin resistance and paves the way for the progression of DM and its complications. Apoptosis has been considered the primary mechanism of beta-cell death in diabetes. However, recent pieces of evidence have implicated the substantial involvement of several other novel modes of cell death, including autophagy, pyroptosis, necroptosis, and ferroptosis. These distinct mechanisms are characterized by their unique biochemical features and often precipitate damage through the induction of cellular stressors, including endoplasmic reticulum stress, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Experimental studies were identified from PubMed literature on different modes of beta cell death during the onset of diabetes mellitus. This review summarizes current knowledge on the crucial pathways implicated in pancreatic beta cell death. The article also focuses on applying natural compounds as potential treatment strategies in inhibiting these cell death pathways.

Circadian regulation of mTORC1 signaling via Per2 dependent mechanism disrupts folliculogenesis and oocyte maturation in female mice

mTOR (mammalian target of Rapamycin) is an important signaling pathway involved in several crucial ovarian functions including folliculogenesis and oocyte maturation. The circadian rhythm regulates multiple physiological processes and PER2 is one of the core circadian rhythm components. mTOR is regulated by the circadian clock and in turn, the rhythmic mTOR activities strengthen the clock function. Our current study aims to investigate a possible interconnection between the circadian clock and the mTORC1 signaling pathway in folliculogenesis and oocyte maturation. Here we demonstrate that the circadian system regulates mTORC1 signaling via Per2 dependent mechanism in the mouse ovary. To investigate the effect of constant light on ovarian and oocyte morphology, animals were housed 12:12 h L:D group in standard lightening conditions and the 12:12 h L:L group in constant light for one week. Food intake and body weight changes were measured. Ovarian morphology, follicle counting, and oocyte aging were evaluated. Afterward, western blot for mTOR, p-mTOR, p70S6K, p-p70S6K, PER2, and Caspase-3 protein levels was performed. The study demonstrated that circadian rhythm disruption caused an alteration in their food intake and decrease in primordial follicle numbers and an increase in the number of atretic follicles. It caused an increase in oxidative stress and a decrease in ZP3 expression in oocytes. Decreased protein levels of mTOR, p-mTOR, p70S6K, and PER2 were shown. The results showed that the circadian clock regulates mTORC1 through PER2 dependent mechanism and that decreased mTORC1 activity can contribute to premature aging of mouse ovary. In conclusion, these results suggest that the circadian clock may control ovarian aging by regulating mTOR signaling pathway through Per2 expression.

Autophagy and necroptosis in cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury: Recent advances regarding their role and therapeutic potential

Cisplatin (CP) is a broad-spectrum antineoplastic agent, used to treat many different types of malignancies due to its high efficacy and low cost. However, its use is largely limited by acute kidney injury (AKI), which, if left untreated, may progress to cause irreversible chronic renal dysfunction. Despite substantial research, the exact mechanisms of CP-induced AKI are still so far unclear and effective therapies are lacking and desperately needed. In recent years, necroptosis, a novel subtype of regulated necrosis, and autophagy, a form of homeostatic housekeeping mechanism have witnessed a burgeoning interest owing to their potential to regulate and alleviate CP-induced AKI. In this review, we elucidate in detail the molecular mechanisms and potential roles of both autophagy and necroptosis in CP-induced AKI. We also explore the potential of targeting these pathways to overcome CP-induced AKI according to recent advances.

Cytotoxicity of Local Anesthetics on Bone, Joint, and Muscle Tissues: A Narrative Review of the Current Literature

Background

Local anesthetics are commonly used in surgical procedures to control pain in patients. Whilst the cardiotoxicity and neurotoxicity of local anesthetics have received much attention, the cytotoxicity they exert against bone, joint, and muscle tissues has yet to be well recognized.

Objective

This review aimed to raise awareness regarding how local anesthetics may cause tissue damage and provide a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of local anesthetic-induced cytotoxicity. We summarized the latest progress on the cytotoxicity of local anesthetics and the underlying mechanisms and discussed potential strategies to reduce it.

Findings

We found that the toxic effects of local anesthetics on bone, joint, and muscle tissues were time- and concentration-dependent in vitro. Local anesthetics induced apoptosis, necrosis, and autophagy through specific cellular pathways. Altogether, this review indicates that toxicity of local anesthetics may be avoided by rationally selecting the appropriate anesthetic, limiting the total amount, and determining the lowest effective concentration and duration.

Live imaging of apoptotic signaling flow using tunable combinatorial FRET-based bioprobes for cell population analysis of caspase cascades

Understanding cellular signaling flow is required to comprehend living organisms. Various live cell imaging tools have been developed but challenges remain due to complex cross-talk between pathways and response heterogeneities among cells. We have focused on multiplex live cell imaging for statistical analysis to address the difficulties and developed simple multiple fluorescence imaging system to quantify cell signaling at single-cell resolution using Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET)-based chimeric molecular sensors comprised of fluorescent proteins and dyes. The dye-fluorescent protein conjugate is robust for a wide selection of combinations, facilitating rearrangement for coordinating emission profile of molecular sensors to adjust for visualization conditions, target phenomena, and simultaneous use. As the molecular sensor could exhibit highly sensitive in detection for protease activity, we customized molecular sensor of caspase-9 and combine the established sensor for caspase-3 to validate the system by observation of caspase-9 and -3 dynamics simultaneously, key signaling flow of apoptosis. We found cumulative caspase-9 activity rather than reaction rate inversely regulated caspase-3 execution times for apoptotic cell death. Imaging-derived statistics were thus applied to discern the dominating aspects of apoptotic signaling unavailable by common live cell imaging and proteomics protein analysis. Adopted to various visualization targets, the technique can discriminate between rivalling explanations and should help unravel other protease involved signaling pathways.

Induction of ferroptosis using functionalized iron-based nanoparticles for anti-cancer therapy

Ferroptosis, a cell death pathway that is induced in response to iron, has recently attracted remarkable attention given its emerging therapeutic potential in cancer cells. The need for a promising modality to improve chemotherapy's efficacy through this pathway has been urgent in recent years, and this non-apoptotic cell death pathway accumulates reactive oxygen species (ROS) and is subsequently involved in lipid peroxidation. Here, we report cancer-targeting nanoparticles that possess highly efficient cancer-targeting ability and minimal systemic toxicity, thereby leading to ferroptosis. To overcome the limit of actual clinical application, which is the ultimate goal due to safety issues, we designed safe nanoparticles that can be applied clinically. Nanoparticles containing ferroptosis-dependent iron and FDA-approved hyaluronic acid (FHA NPs) are fabricated by controlling physicochemical properties, and the FHA NPs specifically induce ROS production and lipid peroxidation in cancer cells without affecting normal cells. The excellent in vivo anti-tumor therapeutic effect of FHA NPs was confirmed in the A549 tumor-bearing mice model, indicating that the induction of FHA NP-mediated cell death via the ferroptosis pathway could serve as a powerful platform in anticancer therapy. We believe that this newly proposed FHA NP-induced ferroptosis strategy is a promising system that offers the potential for efficient cancer treatment and provides insight into the safe design of nanomedicines for clinical applications.

The Effects of Resveratrol-Rich Extracts of Vitis vinifera Pruning Waste on HeLa, MCF-7 and MRC-5 Cells: Apoptosis, Autophagia and Necrosis Interplay

Resveratrol is a well-studied plant-derived molecule in cancer biology, with a plethora of documented in vitro effects. However, its low bioavailability and toxicity risk hamper its wider use. In this study, vine shoots after pruning were used as a source of resveratrol (RSV). The activity of subcritical water extract (SWE) and dry extract (DE) is examined on three cell lines: HeLa, MCF-7 and MRC-5. The cytotoxic effect is assessed by the MTT test and EB/AO staining, levels of apoptosis are determined by Annexin V assay, autophagia by ULK-1 expression using Western blot and NF-kB activation by p65 ELISA. Our results show that both resveratrol-rich extracts (DE, SWE) have a preferential cytotoxic effect on malignant cell lines (HeLa, MCF-7), and low cytotoxicity on non-malignant cells in culture (MRC-5). Further experiments indicate that the investigated malignant cells undergo different cell death pathways. MCF-7 cells died preferentially by apoptosis, while the HeLa cells died most likely by necrosis (possibly ferroptosis). Protective autophagia is diminished upon treatment with DE in both HeLa and MCF-7 cells, while SWE does not influence the level of autophagia. The extracts are effective even at low concentrations (below IC50) in the activation of NF-kB (p65 translocation).

The Strong Anti-Tumor Effect of Smp24 in Lung Adenocarcinoma A549 Cells Depends on Its Induction of Mitochondrial Dysfunctions and ROS Accumulation

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the leading cause of death in lung cancer due to its aggressiveness and rapid migration. The potent antitumor effect of Smp24, an antimicrobial peptide derived from Egyptian scorpion Scorpio maurus palmatus via damaging the membrane and cytoskeleton have been reported earlier. However, its effects on mitochondrial functions and ROS accumulation in human lung cancer cells remain unknown. In the current study, we discovered that Smp24 can interact with the cell membrane and be internalized into A549 cells via endocytosis, followed by targeting mitochondria and affect mitochondrial function, which significantly causes ROS overproduction, altering mitochondrial membrane potential and the expression of cell cycle distribution-related proteins, mitochondrial apoptotic pathway, MAPK, as well as PI3K/Akt/mTOR/FAK signaling pathways. In summary, the antitumor effect of Smp24 against A549 cells is related to the induction of apoptosis, autophagy plus cell cycle arrest via mitochondrial dysfunction, and ROS accumulation. Accordingly, our findings shed light on the anticancer mechanism of Smp24, which may contribute to its further development as a potential agent in the treatment of lung cancer cells.

A comparative study of combination treatments in metastatic 4t1 cells: everolimus and 5- fluorouracil versus lithium chloride and 5-fluorouracil

Background: Combination therapy has been one of the most pioneering and strategic approaches implemented for malignancy treatment, which can intentionally influence multiple signaling pathways involved in cancer growth and progression. In the present study, the effects of 5-fluorouracil (5FU) in combination with everolimus (EVE) or lithium chloride (LiCl) were evaluated in 4T1 metastatic breast cancer cells and compared to control and each other.

Methods and results: The resazurin assay, CompuSyn, flow cytometry, and real-time PCR were used to investigate cell proliferation, drug synergism, apoptosis, and gene expression. In comparison to the ternary combination of the drugs, the findings showed that cytotoxicity (p-value &lt; 0.0001) and apoptosis (p-value &lt; 0.0001) of two-by-two combinations increased dramatically as a consequence of the extreme synergy between 5FU and EVE or LiCl. Moreover, the hypoxia­inducible transcription factor 1-alpha (HIF-1α) and the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) downregulated considerably compared to control (p-value &lt; 0.0001) by combination therapies of EVE-5FU and 5FU-LiCl; however, only VEGF displayed significant downregulation in comparison to single therapies.

Conclusion: The findings showed that the combination of 5FU-LiCl increased cell cytotoxicity and apoptosis significantly more than EVE-5FU but suggests a clinical potential for both to treat metastatic breast cancer encouraging validation of these results in pre-clinical models.

The cross-talk of autophagy and apoptosis in breast carcinoma: implications for novel therapies?

Breast cancer is still the most common cancer in women worldwide. Resistance to drugs and recurrence of the disease are two leading causes of failure in treatment. For a more efficient treatment of patients, the development of novel therapeutic regimes is needed. Recent studies indicate that modulation of autophagy in concert with apoptosis induction may provide a promising novel strategy in breast cancer treatment. Apoptosis and autophagy are two tightly regulated distinct cellular processes. To maintain tissue homeostasis abnormal cells are disposed largely by means of apoptosis. Autophagy, however, contributes to tissue homeostasis and cell fitness by scavenging of damaged organelles, lipids, proteins, and DNA. Defects in autophagy promote tumorigenesis, whereas upon tumor formation rapidly proliferating cancer cells may rely on autophagy to survive. Given that evasion of apoptosis is one of the characteristic hallmarks of cancer cells, inhibiting autophagy and promoting apoptosis can negatively influence cancer cell survival and increase cell death. Hence, combination of antiautophagic agents with the enhancement of apoptosis may restore apoptosis and provide a therapeutic advantage against breast cancer. In this review, we discuss the cross-talk of autophagy and apoptosis and the diverse facets of autophagy in breast cancer cells leading to novel models for more effective therapeutic strategies.

The dual interaction of antimicrobial peptides on bacteria and cancer cells; mechanism of action and therapeutic strategies of nanostructures

Microbial infection and cancer are two leading causes of global mortality. Discovering and developing new therapeutics with better specificity having minimal side-effects and no drug resistance are of an immense need. In this regard, cationic antimicrobial peptides (AMP) with dual antimicrobial and anticancer activities are the ultimate choice. For better efficacy and improved stability, the AMPs available for treatment still required to be modified. There are several strategies in which AMPs can be enhanced through, for instance, nano-carrier application with high selectivity and specificity enables researchers to estimate the rate of drug delivery to a particular tissue. In this review we present the biology and modes of action of AMPs for both anticancer and antimicrobial activities as well as some modification strategies to improve the efficacy and selectivity of these AMPs.

GNE-493 inhibits prostate cancer cell growth via Akt-mTOR-dependent and -independent mechanisms

GNE-493 is a novel PI3K/mTOR dual inhibitor with improved metabolic stability, oral bioavailability, and excellent pharmacokinetic parameters. Here GNE-493 potently inhibited viability, proliferation, and migration in different primary and established (LNCaP and PC-3 lines) prostate cancer cells, and provoking apoptosis. GNE-493 blocked Akt-mTOR activation in primary human prostate cancer cells. A constitutively-active mutant Akt1 restored Akt-mTOR activation but only partially ameliorated GNE-493-induced prostate cancer cell death. Moreover, GNE-493 was still cytotoxic in Akt1/2-silenced primary prostate cancer cells. Significant oxidative stress and programmed necrosis cascade activation were detected in GNE-493-treated prostate cancer cells. Moreover, GNE-493 downregulated Sphingosine Kinase 1 (SphK1), causing ceramide accumulation in primary prostate cancer cells. Daily single dose GNE-493 oral administration robustly inhibited the growth of the prostate cancer xenograft in the nude mice. Akt-mTOR inactivation, SphK1 downregulation, ceramide level increase, and oxidative injury were detected in GNE-493-treated prostate cancer xenograft tissues. Together, GNE-493 inhibited prostate cancer cell growth possibly through the Akt-mTOR-dependent and -independent mechanisms.

Andrographolide Inhibits Proliferation and Promotes Apoptosis in Bladder Cancer Cells by Interfering with NF-κB and PI3K/AKT Signaling In Vitro and In Vivo

OBJECTIVE

To explore the influences of andrographolide (Andro) on bladder cancer cell lines and a tumor xenograft mouse model bearing 5637 cells.

METHODS

For in vitro experiments, T24 cells were stimulated with Andro (0-40 µmol/L) and 5637 cells were stimulated with Andro (0 to 80 µmol/L). Cell growth, migration, and infiltration were assessed using cell counting kit-8, colony formation, wound healing, and transwell assays. Apoptosis rate was examined using flow cytometry. In in vivo study, the antitumor effect of Andro (10 mg/kg) was evaluated by 5637 tumor-bearing mice, and levels of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) and phosphoinositide 3-kinase/AKT related-proteins were determined by immunoblotting.

RESULTS

Andro suppressed growth, migration, and infiltraion of bladder cancer cells (P⩽0.05 or P⩽0.01). Additionally, Andro induced intrinsic mitochondria-dependent apoptosis in bladder cancer cell lines. Furthermore, Andro inhibited bladder cancer growth in mice (P⩽0.01). The expression of p65, p-AKT were suppressed by Andro treatment in vitro and in vivo (P⩽0.05 or P⩽0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Andrographolide inhibits proliferation and promotes apoptosis in bladder cancer cells by interfering with NF-κB and PI3K/AKT signaling in vitro and in vivo.

The Yin-Yang Dynamics in Cancer Pharmacogenomics and Personalized Medicine

The enormous heterogeneity of cancer systems has made it very challenging to overcome drug resistance and adverse reactions to achieve personalized therapies. Recent developments in systems biology, especially the perception of cancer as the complex adaptive system (CAS), may help meet the challenges by deciphering the interactions at various levels from the molecular, cellular, tissue-organ, to the whole organism. The ubiquitous Yin-Yang interactions among the coevolving components, including the genes and proteins, decide their spatiotemporal features at various stages from cancer initiation to metastasis. The Yin-Yang imbalances across different systems levels, from genetic mutations to tumor cells adaptation, have been related to the intra- and inter-tumoral heterogeneity in the micro- and macro-environments. At the molecular and cellular levels, dysfunctional Yin-Yang dynamics in the cytokine networks, mitochondrial activities, redox systems, apoptosis, and metabolism can contribute to tumor cell growth and escape of immune surveillance. Up to the organism and system levels, the Yin-Yang imbalances in the cancer microenvironments can lead to different phenotypes from breast cancer to leukemia. These factors may be considered the systems-based biomarkers and treatment targets. The features of adaptation and nonlinearity in Yin-Yang dynamical interactions should be addressed by individualized drug combinations, dosages, intensities, timing, and frequencies at different cancer stages. The comprehensive "Yin-Yang dynamics" framework would enable powerful approaches for personalized and systems medicine strategies.

Single and double modified salinomycin analogs target stem-like cells in 2D and 3D breast cancer models

Breast cancer remains one of the leading cancers among women. Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are tumor-initiating cells which drive progression, metastasis, and reoccurrence of the disease. CSCs are resistant to conventional chemo- and radio-therapies and their ability to survive such treatment enables tumor reestablishment. Metastasis is the main cause of mortality in women with breast cancer, thus advances in treatment will depend on therapeutic strategies targeting CSCs. Salinomycin (SAL) is a naturally occurring polyether ionophore antibiotic known for its anticancer activity towards several types of tumor cells. In the present work, a library of 17 C1-single and C1/C20-double modified SAL analogs was screened to identify compounds with improved activity against breast CSCs. Six single- and two double-modified analogs were more potent (IC50 range of 1.1 ± 0.1-1.4 ± 0.2 µM) toward the breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231 compared to SAL (IC50 of 4.9 ± 1.6 µM). Double-modified compound 17 was found to be more efficacious than SAL against the majority of cancer cell lines in the NCI-60 Human Tumor Cell Line Panel. Compound 17 was more potent than SAL in inhibiting cell migration and cell renewal properties of MDA-MB-231 cells, as well as inducing selective loss of the CD44+/CD24/low stem-cell-like subpopulation in both monolayer (2D) and organoid (3D) culture. The present findings highlight the therapeutic potential of SAL analogs towards breast CSCs and identify select compounds that merit further study and clinical development.

Huxie Huaji Ointment Induced Apoptosis of Liver Cancer Cells In Vivo and In Vitro by Activating the Mitochondrial Pathway

Huxie Huaji (HXHJ) Ointment is a famous traditional Chinese medicinal prescription and is commonly used for the clinical treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma by boosting immunity and detoxification. However, the scientific evidence for the effect of HXHJ Ointment on hepatocellular carcinoma and the underlying molecular mechanism are lacking. The present study aimed to identify the effects of HXHJ Ointment on hepatocellular carcinoma in vitro and in vivo as well as investigating the mechanistic basis for the anticancer effect of HXHJ ointment. First, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry was used to verify the composition of HXHJ Ointment and quality control. Second, in vitro, Cell Counting Kit (CCK8) cell viability assay and Hoechst 33342 staining assay were performed to explain the cell apoptosis. The protein levels of tumor suppressor protein (p53), B-cell lymphoma 2 gene (Bcl-2), cytochrome C (Cyt-C), and aspartate proteolytic enzyme-3 (caspase-3) were examined by immunofluorescence. Finally, in vivo, hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining was used to observe the pathological changes in hepatocellular carcinoma samples. Western blots and immunohistochemistry were used to detect the anticancer properties of HXHJ ointment. The results in vitro showed that 20% HXHJ Ointment serum could significantly inhibit HepG2 cell proliferation, increased tumor suppressor gene p53, downregulated antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2, promoted the release of mitochondrial Cyt-C, activated caspase-3, and induced HepG2 cell apoptosis. Furthermore, in vivo experiments showed that HXHJ Ointment could effectively inhibit tumor growth in nude mice xenotransplanted with HepG2 cells, changed the morphology of tumor cells, and regulated the expression of apoptosis-related protein pathway p53/Bcl-2/Cyt-C/caspase-3. HXHJ Ointment can significantly inhibit the development of hepatocellular carcinoma, and its mechanism may be related to the regulation of p53/Bcl-2/Cyt-C/caspase-3 signaling pathway to induce cell mitochondrial apoptosis.

Oxidative stress and cyto-genotoxicity induced by poly-d-glucosamine in human blood cells in vitro

Poly-N-acetyl-d-glucosamine (CH; chitin) is the main component of the insect skeleton, fungal cell wall, and many crustaceans, including crab and shrimp. CH is the most abundant in nature after cellulose, and it has a complex and hardly soluble structure. Poly-d-glucosamine (CHO; chitosan) is a soluble derivative of CH produced by deacetylation used in many fields, including human health. This study carried out the cytotoxic, genotoxic, and oxidative effects of CHO on human whole blood (hWB) and lymphocytes (LYMs) in dose ranges 6.25-2000 μg/mL, in vitro. Total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and total oxidant status (TOS) analyzes were performed on plasma to appreciate oxidative stress. 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5 diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assays were applied to understand the cytotoxicity. Chromosomal aberration (CA) and micronucleus (MN) methods were practiced to evaluate genotoxicity. 6.25-150 μg/mL doses increased TAC and decreased TOS. A decreasing and increasing curve from 200 to 2000 μg/mL on TAC and TOS values were determined, respectively. 0-250 μg/mL doses did not provide any cytotoxic data. However, 500-2000 μg/mL doses showed increasing cytotoxicity and genotoxicity. The study results showed that CHO does not pose a toxic risk to human health at low doses but may pose a threat at high doses.

Apoptosis-Inducing TNF Superfamily Ligands for Cancer Therapy

Cancer is a complex disease with apoptosis evasion as one of its hallmarks; therefore, apoptosis induction in transformed cells seems a promising approach as a cancer treatment. TNF apoptosis-inducing ligands, which are naturally present in the body and possess tumoricidal activity, are attractive candidates. The most studied proteins are TNF-α, FasL, and TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL). Over the years, different recombinant TNF family-derived apoptosis-inducing ligands and agonists have been designed. Their stability, specificity, and half-life have been improved because most of the TNF ligands have the disadvantages of having a short half-life and affinity to more than one receptor. Here, we review the outlook on apoptosis-inducing ligands as cancer treatments in diverse preclinical and clinical stages and summarize strategies of overcoming their natural limitations to improve their effectiveness.

Sulforaphane and Albumin Attenuate Experimental Intestinal Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury

BACKGROUND

Intestinal ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury constitutes a severe disorder, in great part resulting from oxidative stress. Because sulforaphane and albumin were shown to increase antioxidant defenses, we evaluated the therapeutic potential of these agents in an experimental model of I/R injury.

METHODS

Wistar rats were used to establish a model of intestinal I/R (35 min of ischemia, followed by 45 min of reperfusion) and were treated with albumin (5 mL/kg), sulforaphane (500 μg/kg), or saline intravenously before reperfusion. Animals that were not subjected to I/R served as the sham (laparotomy only) and control groups. Blood samples were analyzed for arterial gas, reactive oxygen species, and reactive nitrogen species using different molecular fluorescent probes. After euthanasia, ileal samples were collected for analysis, including histopathology, immunohistochemistry, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT)-mediated dUTP nick-end labeling assays, and lactic dehydrogenase measurement.

RESULTS

Oxygenation status and hemodynamic parameters were uniform during the experiment. The sulforaphane- or albumin-treated groups showed reduced concentrations of reactive oxygen species (P < 0.04), nitric oxide (P < 0.001), and peroxynitrite (P = 0.001), compared with I/R injury untreated animals. Treatment with sulforaphane or albumin resulted in the preservation of goblet cells (P < 0.03), reductions in histopathologic scores (P < 0.01), macrophage density (P < 0.01), iNOS expression (P < 0.004), NF-kappa B activation (P < 0.05), and apoptotic rates (P < 0.04) in the mucosa and a reduction in the concentration of lactic dehydrogenase (P < 0.04), more pronounced with sulforaphane.

CONCLUSIONS

Attenuation of intestinal I/R injury in this model probably reflects the antioxidative effects of systemic administration of both sulforaphane and albumin and reinforces their use in future translational research.

Attritional evaluation of lipophilic and hydrophilic metallated phthalocyanines for oncological photodynamic therapy

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Oncological photodynamic therapy (PDT) relies on photosensitizers (PSs) to photo-oxidatively destroy tumor cells. Currently approved PSs yield satisfactory results in superficial and easy-to-access tumors but are less suited for solid cancers in internal organs such as the biliary system and the pancreas. For these malignancies, second-generation PSs such as metallated phthalocyanines are more appropriate. Presently it is not known which of the commonly employed metallated phtahlocyanines, namely aluminum phthalocyanine (AlPC) and zinc phthalocyanine (ZnPC) as well as their tetrasulfonated derivatives AlPCS4 and ZnPCS4, is most cytotoxic to tumor cells. This study therefore employed an attritional approach to ascertain the best metallated phthalocyanine for oncological PDT in a head-to-head comparative analysis and standardized experimental design.

METHODS

ZnPC and AlPC were encapsulated in PEGylated liposomes. Analyses were performed in cultured A431 cells as a template for tumor cells with a dysfunctional P53 tumor suppressor gene and EGFR overexpression. First, dark toxicity was assessed as a function of PS concentration using the WST-1 and sulforhodamine B assay. Second, time-dependent uptake and intracellular distribution were determined by flow cytometry and confocal microscopy, respectively, using the intrinsic fluorescence of the PSs. Third, the LC₅₀ values were established for each PS at 671 nm and a radiant exposure of 15 J/cm² following 1-h PS exposure. Finally, the mode of cell death as a function of post-PDT time and cell cycle arrest at 24 h after PDT were analyzed.

RESULTS

In the absence of illumination, AlPC and ZnPC were not toxic to cells up to a 1.5-μM PS concentration and exposure for up to 72 h. Dark toxicity was noted for AlPCS4 at 5 μM and ZnPCS4 at 2.5 μM. Uptake of all PSs was observed as early as 1 min after PS addition to cells and increased in amplitude during a 2-h incubation period. After 60 min, the entire non-nuclear space of the cell was photosensitized, with PS accumulation in multiple subcellular structures, especially in case of AlPC and AlPCS4. PDT of cells photosensitized with ZnPC, AlPC, and AlPCS4 yielded LC₅₀ values of 0.13 μM, 0.04 μM, and 0.81 μM, respectively, 24 h post-PDT (based on sulforhodamine B assay). ZnPCS4 did not induce notable phototoxicity, which was echoed in the mode of cell death and cell cycle arrest data. At 4 h post-PDT, the mode of cell death comprised mainly apoptosis for ZnPC and AlPC, the extent of which was gradually exacerbated in AlPC-photosensitized cells during 8 h. ZnPC-treated cells seemed to recover at 8 h post-PDT compared to 4 h post-PDT, which had been observed before in another cell line. AlPCS4 induced considerable necrosis in addition to apoptosis, whereby most of the cell death had already manifested at 2 h after PDT. During the course of 8 h, necrotic cell death transitioned into mainly late apoptotic cell death. Cell death signaling coincided with a reduction in cells in the G₀/G₁ phase (ZnPC, AlPC, AlPCS4) and cell cycle arrest in the S-phase (ZnPC, AlPC, AlPCS4) and G₂ phase (ZnPC and AlPC). Cell cycle arrest was most profound in cells that had been photosensitized with AlPC and subjected to PDT.

CONCLUSIONS

Liposomal AlPC is the most potent PS for oncological PDT, whereas ZnPCS4 was photodynamically inert in A431 cells. AlPC did not induce dark toxicity at PS concentrations of up to 1.5 μM, i.e., > 37 times the LC₅₀ value, which is favorable in terms of clinical phototoxicity issues. AlPC photosensitized multiple intracellular loci, which was associated with extensive, irreversible cell death signaling that is expected to benefit treatment efficacy and possibly immunological long-term tumor control, granted that sufficient AlPC will reach the tumor in vivo. Given the differential pharmacokinetics, intracellular distribution, and cell death dynamics, liposomal AlPC may be combined with AlPCS4 in a PS cocktail to further improve PDT efficacy.

Signaling, metabolism, and cancer: An important relationship for therapeutic intervention

In cancerous cells, significant changes occur in the activity of signaling pathways affecting a wide range of cellular activities ranging from growth and proliferation to apoptosis, invasiveness, and metastasis. Extensive changes also happen with respect to the metabolism of a cancerous cell encompassing a wide range of functions that include: nutrient acquisition, biosynthesis of macromolecules, and energy generation. These changes are important and some therapeutic approaches for treating cancers have focused on targeting the metabolism of cancerous cells. Oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes have a significant effect on the metabolism of cells. There appears to be a close interaction between metabolism and the signaling pathways in a cancerous cell, in which the interaction provides the metabolic needs of a cancerous cell for uncontrolled proliferation, resistance to apoptosis, and metastasis. In this review, we have reviewed the latest findings in this regard and briefly review the most recent research findings regarding targeting the metabolism of cancer cells as a therapeutic approach for treatment of cancer.

Identification and development of a novel invasion-related gene signature for prognosis prediction in colon adenocarcinoma

The overall survival of metastatic colon adenocarcinoma (COAD) remains poor, so it is important to explore the mechanisms of metastasis and invasion. This study aimed to identify invasion-related genetic markers for prognosis prediction in patients with COAD. Three molecular subtypes (C1, C2, and C3) were obtained based on 97 metastasis-related genes in 365 COAD samples from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA). A total of 983 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified among the different subtypes by using the limma package. A 6-gene signature (ITLN1, HOXD9, TSPAN11, GPRC5B, TIMP1, and CXCL13) was constructed via Lasso-Cox analysis. The signature showed strong robustness and could be used in the training, testing, and external validation (GSE17537) cohorts with stable predictive efficiency. Compared with other published signatures, our model showed better performance in predicting outcomes. Pan-cancer expression analysis results showed that ITLN1, TSPAN11, CXCL13, and GPRC5B were downregulated and TIMP1 was upregulated in most tumor samples, including COAD, which was consistent with the results of the TCGA and GEO cohorts. Western blot analysis and immunohistochemistry were performed to validate protein expression. Tumor immune infiltration analysis results showed that TSPAN11, GPRC5B, TIMP1, and CXCL13 protein levels were significantly positively correlated with CD4+ T cells, macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells. Further, the TIMP1 and CXCL13 proteins were significantly related to the tumor immune infiltration of CD8+ T cells. We recommend using our signature as a molecular prognostic classifier to assess the prognostic risk of patients with COAD.

Engulfment and cell motility 1 promotes tumor progression via the modulation of tumor cell survival in gastric cancer

BACKGROUND/AIM

Engulfment and cell motility 1 (ELMO1) protein has been implicated in phagocytosis of apoptotic cells, cell migration, neurite outgrowth, cancer cell invasion and metastasis, and poor prognosis in various cancers. We investigated the role of ELMO1 in mediating the oncogenic behavior of gastric cancer (GC) cells. We also investigated the correlation between expression of ELMO1 in GC tissues and various clinicopathological parameters.

METHODS

We studied the impact of ELMO1 on tumor cell behavior using the pcDNA-myc vector and small interfering RNA in AGS and SNU1750 GC cell lines. We performed western blotting and immunohistochemistry to investigate the expression of ELMO1 in GC cells and tissues.

RESULTS

ELMO1 overexpression inhibited apoptosis via the modulation of PARP, caspase-3 and caspase-7 in GC cells. ELMO1 overexpression led to significant increase in the number of migrating and invading GC cells. The expression of E-cadherin decreased and that of Snail increased in GC cells upon ELMO1 overexpression. Phosphorylation of PI3K/Akt and GSK-3β was increased and that of β-catenin was decreased upon ELMO1 overexpression in GC cells. These results were reversed after ELMO1 knockdown. ELMO1 expression was significantly associated with tumor size, cancer stage, lymph node metastasis and survival. ELMO1-positive tumors had significantly higher mean of Ki-67 labeling index than ELMO1-negative tumors. There was no significant relationship between ELMO1 expression and the mean value of the apoptotic index.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that ELMO1 promotes tumor progression by modulating tumor cell survival in human GC.

Colonic metabolites from digested Moringa oleifera leaves induced HT-29 cell death via apoptosis, necrosis, and autophagy

Colorectal cancer is an important concern in modern society. Risk factors such as the diet indicate the need to find healthy food products displaying additional health benefits. This study aimed to characterise and evaluate the impact of the colonic metabolites from the fermented non-digestible fraction of Moringa oleifera (MO) leaves (FNFM) on cell death mechanisms from HT-29 cells. MO leaves were digested in vitro, and the 12 h-colonic extract was obtained. FNFM mainly contained morin and chlorogenic acids (41.97 and 25.33 µg/g sample). Butyric acid was ranked as the most important metabolite of FNFM. The FNFM exerted antiproliferative effect against HT-29 colorectal cancer cells (half lethal concentration, LC₅₀: 5.9 mL/100 mL). Compared to untreated control, LC₅₀ increased H2O2 production (149.43%); induced apoptosis (119.02%), autophagy (75.60%), and necrosis (87.72%). These results suggested that digested MO colonic metabolites exert antiproliferative effect against HT-29 cells, providing additional health benefits associated with MO consumption.

In Vitro Effects of Lithium Carbonate on Cell Cycle, Apoptosis, and Autophagy in Hepatocellular Carcinoma-29 Cells

We studied the effects of lithium carbonate on the cell cycle, apoptosis, and autophagy in hepatocellular carcinoma-29 cells (HCC-29) in vitro. Flow cytofluorometry analysis revealed accumulation of G2/M-phase HCC-29 cells and increase in the number of apoptotic cells in 48 h after administration of 5 mM lithium carbonate. Induction of autophagy in HCC-29 cells was detected by transmission electron microscopy and immunofluorescence staining. Thus, lithium carbonate produces an antitumor effect by arresting cell cycle in the G2/M-phase and induction of apoptosis and autophagy in HCC-29 cells, which confirms the lithium potential as a promising drug for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma.

AMG900 as novel inhibitor of the translationally controlled tumor protein

INTRODUCTION

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Classical cytotoxic chemotherapy exerts high side effects and low tumor selectivity. Translationally controlled tumor protein (TCTP) is a target for differentiation therapy, a promising, new therapeutic approach, which is expected to be more selective and less toxic than cytotoxic chemotherapy. The aim of the present investigation was to identify novel TCTP inhibitors.

METHODS

We performed in silico screening and molecular docking using a chemical library of more than 31,000 compounds to identify a novel inhibitor of TCTP. We tested AMG900 in vitro for binding to TCTP by microscale thermophoresis and co-immunoprecipitation. Additionally, we examined the effect of TCTP blockade on cell cycle progression by flow cytometry and Western blotting and cancer cell survival by resazurin assays in MCF-7, SK-OV3 and MOLT-4 cell lines.

RESULTS

We identified AMG900 as new inhibitor of TCTP. AMG900 bound to the p53 binding site of TCTP with a free binding energy of -9.63 ± 0.01 kcal/mol. This compound decreased TCTP expression to 23.4 ± 1.59% and increased p53 expression to 194.29 ± 24.27%. Furthermore, AMG900 induced G0/G1 arrest as shown by flow cytometry and Western blot of relevant cell cycle proteins. AMG900 decreased CDK2, CDK4, CDK6, cyclin D1 and cyclin D3 expression, whereas p18, p21 and p27 expression increased. Moreover, AMG900 disturbed TCTP-p53 complexation as shown by co-immunoprecipitation and increased expression of free p53.

DISCUSSION

AMG900 may serve as novel lead compound for the development of differentiation therapy approaches against cancer.

Role of Bcl-2 Family Proteins in Photodynamic Therapy Mediated Cell Survival and Regulation

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a treatment modality that involves three components: combination of a photosensitizer, light and molecular oxygen that leads to localized formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The ROS generated from this promising therapeutic modality can be lethal to the cell and leads to consequential destruction of tumor cells. However, sometimes the ROS trigger a stress response survival mechanism that helps the cells to cope with PDT-induced damage, resulting in resistance to the treatment. One preferred mechanism of cell death induced by PDT is apoptosis, and B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) family proteins have been described as a major determinant of life or death decision of the death pathways. Apoptosis is a cellular self-destruction mechanism to remove old cells through the biological event of tissue homeostasis. The Bcl-2 family proteins act as a critical mediator of a life–death decision of cells in maintaining tissue homeostasis. There are several reports that show cancer cells developing resistance due to the increased interaction of the pro-survival Bcl-2 family proteins. However, the key mechanisms leading to apoptosis evasion and drug resistance have not been adequately understood. Therefore, it is critical to understand the mechanisms of PDT resistance, as well as the Bcl-2 family proteins, to give more insight into the treatment outcomes. In this review, we describe the role of Bcl-2 gene family proteins’ interaction in response to disease progression and PDT-induced resistance mechanisms.

Novel resveratrol derivatives have diverse effects on the survival, proliferation and senescence of primary human fibroblasts

Resveratrol alters the cytokinetics of mammalian cell populations in a dose dependent manner. Concentrations above 25-50 µM typically trigger growth arrest, senescence and/or apoptosis in multiple different cell types. In contrast, concentrations below 10 µM enhance the growth of log phase cell cultures and can rescue senescence in multiple strains of human fibroblasts. To better understand the structural features that regulate these effects, a panel of 24 structurally-related resveralogues were synthesised and evaluated for their capacity to activate SIRT1, as determined by an ex-vivo SIRT1 assay, their toxicity, as measured by lactate dehydrogenase release, and their effects on replicative senescence in MRC5 human fibroblasts as measured by their effects on Ki67 immunoreactivity and senescence-associated β galactosidase activity. Minor modifications to the parent stilbene, resveratrol, significantly alter the biological activities of the molecules. Replacement of the 3,5-dihydroxy substituents with 3,5-dimethoxy groups significantly enhances SIRT1 activity, and reduces toxicity. Minimising other strong conjugative effects also reduces toxicity, but negatively impacts SIRT1 activation. At 100 µM many of the compounds, including resveratrol, induce senescence in primary MRC5 cells in culture. Modifications that reduce or remove this effect match those that reduce toxicity leading to a correlation between reduction in labelling index and increase in LDH release. At 10 µM, the majority of our compounds significantly enhance the growth fraction of log phase cultures of MRC5 cells, consistent with the rescue of a subpopulation of cells within the culture from senescence. SIRT1 activation is not required for rescue to occur but enhances the size of the effect.

Apoptosis as a Prognostic Factor in Colorectal Carcinoma: Comparison of TUNEL Method and Immunohistochemical Expression of Caspase-3

The development of colorectal cancer is known to be characterized by a sequence of events during which normal colonic epithelium gradually transforms to carcinoma, the adenoma-carcinoma sequence. Apoptosis plays an important role in the development and maintenance of tissue homeostasis. Currently, there is no agreement in the literature about the prognosis of apoptosis in colorectal cancer. The number of studies examining the expression of caspases in colorectal cancer is very limited, and they have not examined any correlation between expression and patient survival. This study included histologic samples from 179 patients diagnosed with colon cancer. We used the TdT-mediated X-dUTP nick end labeling method and caspase-3 labeling to identify the degree of apoptosis. Our results show that lower apoptotic index measured by TdT-mediated X-dUTP nick end labeling method and lower immnuhistochemical expression of caspase-3 is associated with shorter disease-free survival and overall survival. However, only apoptotic index is proven to be an independent survival indicator. The results of our study are consistent with the proposed models of carcinogenesis of colorectal cancer that emphasize resistance to apoptosis as a decisive factor in the progression of the disease and resistance to treatment.

Senolytics (DQ) Mitigates Radiation Ulcers by Removing Senescent Cells

Radiation ulcers are a prevalent toxic side effect in patients receiving radiation therapy. At present, there is still no effective treatment for the complication. Senescent cells accumulate after radiation exposure, which can induce cell and tissue dysfunction. Here we demonstrate increased expression of p16 (a senescence biomarker) in human radiation ulcers after radiotherapy and radiation-induced persistent cell senescence in animal ulcer models. Furthermore, senescent cells secreted the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) and induced cell senescence in adjacent cells, which was alleviated by JAK inhibition. In addition, the clearance of senescent cells following treatment with a senolytics cocktail, Dasatinib plus Quercetin (DQ), mitigated radiation ulcers. Finally, DQ induced tumor cell apoptosis and enhanced radiosensitivity in representative CAL-27 and MCF-7 cell lines. Our results demonstrate that cell senescence is involved in the development of radiation ulcers and that elimination of senescent cells might be a viable strategy for patients with this condition.

Effect and mechanism of YB-1 knockdown on glioma cell growth, migration, and apoptosis

Y-box binding protein 1 (YB-1) is manifested as its involvement in cell proliferation and differentiation and malignant cell transformation. Overexpression of YB-1 is associated with glioma progression and patient survival. The aim of this study is to investigate the influence of YB-1 knockdown on glioma cell progression and reveal the mechanisms of YB-1 knockdown on glioma cell growth, migration, and apoptosis. It was found that the knockdown of YB-1 decreased the mRNA and protein levels of YB-1 in U251 glioma cells. The knockdown of YB-1 significantly inhibited cell proliferation, colony formation, and migration in vitro and tumor growth in vivo. Proteome and phosphoproteome data revealed that YB-1 is involved in glioma progression through regulating the expression and phosphorylation of major proteins involved in cell cycle, adhesion, and apoptosis. The main regulated proteins included CCNB1, CCNDBP1, CDK2, CDK3, ADGRG1, CDH-2, MMP14, AIFM1, HO-1, and BAX. Furthermore, it was also found that YB-1 knockdown is associated with the hypo-phosphorylation of ErbB, mTOR, HIF-1, cGMP-PKG, and insulin signaling pathways, and proteoglycans in cancer. Our findings indicated that YB-1 plays a key role in glioma progression in multiple ways, including regulating the expression and phosphorylation of major proteins associated with cell cycle, adhesion, and apoptosis.

AIE-Based Theranostic Agent: In Situ Tracking Mitophagy Prior to Late Apoptosis To Guide the Photodynamic Therapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) takes advantage of reactive oxygen species (ROS) to trigger the apoptosis for cancer therapy. Given that cell apoptosis is a form of programmed cell death involved with multiple suborganelles and cancer cells are more sensitive to ROS than normal cells, early confirmation of the apoptosis induced by ROS would effectively avoid overtreatment. Herein, we highlight an aggregation-induced emission (AIE)-based theranostic agent (TPA3) to in situ dynamically track mitophagy prior to late apoptosis. TPA3 showed high specificity to autophagy vacuoles (AVs), of which appearance is the signature event of mitophagy during early apoptosis and delivered photocytotoxicity to cancer cells and skin cancer tumors in nude mice under irradiation of white light. Furthermore, in situ monitoring of the dynamical mitophagy process involved with mitochondria, AVs, and lysosomes was performed for the first time under confocal microscopy, providing a real-time self-monitoring system for assessing the curative effect prior to late apoptosis. This fluorescence imaging guided PDT witness great advances for applying in the clinical application.

Nongenetic engineering strategies for regulating receptor oligomerization in living cells

Nongenetic strategies for regulating receptor oligomerization in living cells based on DNA, protein, small molecules and physical stimuli.

Targeting ROS-Mediated Crosstalk Between Autophagy and Apoptosis in Cancer

The control of crosstalk between autophagy and apoptosis in tumor cells can remove a critical barrier to comprehensive and efficacious treatment for cancer. Reactive oxygen species (ROS), by-products of redox homeostasis, are critical for regulating the balance between autophagy and apoptosis in cancer cells upon different drug treatments and gene modifications. The mechanisms and consequences involved in ROS-mediated crosstalk between apoptosis and autophagy are extremely complex in cancer cells. Here, we mainly discuss the closely linked relationship between ROS levels, autophagy, and apoptosis in cancer therapy.

Identification and characterization of chemical components in the bioactive fractions of Cynomorium coccineum that possess anticancer activity

Cynomorium coccineum has long been used as the health and medicinal plant known to induce cancer cell death. However, the bioactive compounds of C. coccineum and the underlying mechanism of their regulator in cell autophagy and cell apoptosis remain unexplored. In our previous study, we found that the ethanol extract had antitumor activity through inducing cancer cell death. In this study, by detecting the anti-tumor effect of sequence extracts from Cynomorium coccineum, the active constituents were collected in solvent ethyl acetate. A strategy based on ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with hybrid quadrupole-orbitrap mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-Orbitrap/MS) was first utilized to analyze the chemical constituents of active fraction (ethyl acetate fraction, CS3). A total of 29 compounds including 8 triterpenoids, 6 flavonoids, 4 fatty acids, 8 phenolic acids, 1 anthraquinones, 1 nucleoside and 1 sterol were detected and identified or tentatively identified for the first time in Cynomorium coccineum. We found that CS3 induces cancer cell death accompanied with a great number of vacuoles in the cytoplasm. CS3-induced autophagosome formation was found and confirmed by electron microscopy and the high expression levels of microtubule-associated protein-1 light chain 3-II (LC3II), a marker protein of autophagy. We additionally demonstrated that CS3 activated and increased the pro-apoptotic mitochondrial proteins, BNIP3 and BNIP3L, in mRNA and protein levels. The constituents of CS3 down-regulated anti-apoptotic BCL2, and then releases autophagic protein Beclin-1. These finding for the first time systematically not only explore and identify the active constituents of CS3 in Cynomorium coccineum, but also examined the mechanism associated with CS3-induced cell death via cell autophagy. This active component may serve as a potential source to obtain new autophagy inducer and anti-cancer compounds for hepatocellular carcinoma.

Autophagy in the Immunosuppressive Perivascular Microenvironment of Glioblastoma

Glioblastoma (GB) has been shown to up-regulate autophagy with anti- or pro-oncogenic effects. Recently, our group has shown how GB cells aberrantly up-regulate chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA) in pericytes of peritumoral areas to modulate their immune function through cell-cell interaction and in the tumor’s own benefit. Thus, to understand GB progression, the effect that GB cells could have on autophagy of immune cells that surround the tumor needs to be deeply explored. In this review, we summarize all the latest evidence of several molecular and cellular immunosuppressive mechanisms in the perivascular tumor microenvironment. This immunosuppression has been reported to facilitate GB progression and may be differently modulated by several types of autophagy as a critical point to be considered for therapeutic interventions.

Evolving Role of Novel Quantitative PET Techniques to Detect Radiation-Induced Complications

Radiation-induced normal tissue toxicities vary in terms of pathophysiologic determinants and timing of disease development, and they are influenced by the dose and radiation volume the critical organs receive, and the radiosensitivity of normal tissues and their baseline rate of cell turnover. Radiation-induced lung injury is dose limiting for the treatment of lung and thoracic cancers and can lead to fibrosis and potentially fatal pneumonitis. This article focuses on pulmonary and cardiovascular complications of radiation therapy and discusses how PET-based novel quantitative techniques can be used to detect these events earlier than current imaging modalities or clinical presentation allow.

Autophagy protects peripheral blood mononuclear cells against inflammation, oxidative and nitrosative stress in diabetic dyslipidemia

BACKGROUND

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) results in severe oxidative and nitrosative stress and inflammation when associated with hyperlipidemia. In this study, we have attempted to explore the role of autophagy in T2DM subjects with or without dyslipidemia.

METHODS

Experiments were carried out in isolated Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from study subjects and insulin resistant HepG2 cells utilizing flow cytometry, confocal microscopy and molecular biology techniques like western blotting, immunofluorescence and real time PCR.

RESULTS

In case of T2DM with dyslipidemia, higher population of autophagy positive cell was detected compared to T2DM which may have been originated due to higher stress. Flow cytometric data indicated autophagy to be triggered by both oxidative and nitrosative stress in PBMC of diabetic dyslipidemic patients, which is a novel finding of our work. Expression of LC3 puncta, a hallmark of autophagy was observed at periphery of PBMC and Hep G2 cells in case of diabetic dyslipidemic condition. Increased expression of ATG5, LC3B and Beclin1 supports the autophagic pathway in both PBMC and Hep G2 cells. Upon blocking autophagy by 3-methyl adenine (3MA), the apoptotic cell population increased significantly. Autophagy was also been evidenced to control oxidative stress mediated up-regulation of inflammatory markers like IL-6, TNF-α.

CONCLUSION

Induction of autophagy emerged to be a protective mechanism for the diabetic cells coupled with dyslipidemia. Not only Reactive oxygen species, but also reactive nitrogen species was involved in autophagy induction process. Moreover inhibition study documented autophagy to have a protective role in pro-inflammatory responses. Thus, enhancing autophagic activity may be an efficient mechanism leading to new therapeutic strategy to restore the glycemic regulation.

Programmed necrosis and its role in management of breast cancer

Breast cancer is one of the major causes of cancer related deaths in women worldwide. A major factor responsible for treatment failure in breast cancer is the development of resistance to commonly used chemotherapeutic drugs leading to disease relapse. Several studies have shown dysregulation of molecular machinery of apoptosis, the major programmed cell death pathway in breast malignancies. Thus, there is an unmet need to search for an alternative cell death pathway which can work when apoptosis is compromised. Necroptosis or programmed necrosis is a relatively recently described entity which has attracted attention in this context. Classically, even in physiological conditions necroptosis is found to act if apoptosis is not functional due to some reason. Recently, more and more studies are being conducted in different malignancies to explore the possibility and utility of inducing cell death by necroptosis. The present review describes the key molecular players involved in necroptotic pathway and their status in breast cancer. In addition, the research done to utilize this pathway for treatment of breast cancer has also been highlighted.

Novel therapeutic interventions in cancer treatment using protein and peptide-based targeted smart systems

Cancer, being the most prevalent and resistant disease afflicting any gender, age or social status, is the ultimate challenge for the scientific community. The new generation therapeutics for cancer management has shifted the approach to personalized/precision medicine, making use of patient- and tumor-specific markers for specifying the targeted therapies for each patient. Peptides targeting these cancer-specific signatures hold enormous potential for cancer therapy and diagnosis. The rapid advancements in the combinatorial peptide libraries served as an impetus to the development of multifunctional peptide-based materials for targeted cancer therapy. The present review outlines benefits and shortcomings of peptides as cancer therapeutics and the potential of peptide modified nanomedicines for targeted delivery of anticancer agents.

Swainsonine induces autophagy via PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway to injure the renal tubular epithelial cells

Swainsonine is a major toxic ingredients of locoweed plants, ingestion of these plants may cause locoism in livestock characterized by extensive cellular vacuolar degeneration of multiple tissues. However, so far, the mechanisms responsible for vacuolar degeneration induced by SW are not known. In this study, we investigated the role of autophagy in SW-induced TCMK-1 cells using Western blotting, transmission electron microscopy, immunofluorescent microscopy and qRT-PCR. The results showed that SW treatment increased the levels of LC3-II. The co-localization of LC3-II and lysosomal protein LAMP-2 results suggested that SW treatment does not interfere with fusion between autophagosome and lysosome. TEM results indicated that SW induced aggregation of the lysosome around the autophagosome. In addition, SW treatment suppressed p-PI3K, p-Akt, p-mTOR, p-p70S6K and p-4EBP1 level. In conclusion, SW induced autophagy via pI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway and revealed the role of autophagy in causing the SW toxicity characterized by the vacuolar degeneration.