Simple organ failure count versus CANONIC grading system for predicting mortality in acute-on-chronic liver failure

Definitions, Etiologies, and Outcomes of Acute on Chronic Liver Failure: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) is a major public health concern. We aimed to assess the definitions, etiologic spectrum, organ failure (OF), and outcomes of ACLF globally.

METHODS

Three databases were searched for studies on ACLF from 1990 until September 2022. Information regarding definitions, acute precipitants, underlying chronic liver disease (CLD), OF, and mortality were extracted. Meta-analyses were performed for pooled prevalence rates (95% confidence interval [CI]) using random-effects model for each definition of ACLF.

RESULTS

Of the 11,451 studies identified, 114 articles (142 cohorts encompassing 210,239 patients) met the eligibility criteria. Most studies (53.2%) used the European Association for the Study of the Liver (EASL) definition, followed by Asia-Pacific Association for the Study of the Liver (APASL) (33.3%). Systemic infection was the major acute precipitant, and alcohol use was the major cause of CLD in EASL-defined studies, whereas alcohol was both the major acute precipitant and cause of CLD in APASL-defined studies. Liver failure was the major OF in APASL-based studies, whereas renal failure was predominant in EASL-based studies. Thirty-day mortality varied across definitions: APASL: 38.9%, 95% CI, 31.2%-46.9%; EASL: 47.9%, 95% CI, 42.2%-53.5%; and NACSELD: 52.2%, 95% CI, 51.9%-52.5%. Diagnostic overlap between definitions ranged from 7.7% to 80.2%. Meta-regression suggested that the World Health Organization region influenced 30-day mortality in studies using EASL definition.

CONCLUSIONS

Heterogeneity in the definition of ACLF proposed by different expert societies and regional preferences in its use result in differences in clinical phenotype and outcomes. A uniform definition would enhance the comparability and interpretation of global data.

Comparison of a Novel Score "NOD-ACLF" to Other Established Prognostic Scores for Prediction of Mortality in APASL-ACLF Patients: A Cohort Study from a Tertiary Care Center of North India

Background

Commonly used prognostic scores for acute on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) have complex calculations. We tried to compare the simple counting of numbers and types of organ dysfunction to these scores, to predict mortality in ACLF patients.

Methods

In this prospective cohort study, ACLF patients diagnosed on the basis of Asia Pacific Association for Study of the Liver (APASL) definition were included. Severity scores were calculated. Prognostic factors for outcome were analysed. A new score, the Number of Organ Dysfunctions in Acute-on-Chronic Liver Failure (NOD-ACLF) score was developed.

Results

Among 80 ACLF patients, 74 (92.5%) were male, and 6 were female (7.5%). The mean age was 41.0±10.7 (18-70) years. Profile of acute insult was; alcohol 48 (60%), sepsis 30 (37.5%), variceal bleeding 22 (27.5%), viral 8 (10%), and drug-induced 3 (3.8%). Profiles of chronic insults were alcohol 61 (76.3%), viral 20 (25%), autoimmune 3 (3.8%), and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis 2 (2.5%). Thirty-eight (47.5%) were discharged, and 42 (52.5%) expired. The mean number of organ dysfunction (NOD-ACLF score) was ->4.5, simple organ failure count (SOFC) score was >2.5, APASL ACLF Research Consortium score was >11.5, Model for End-Stage Liver Disease-Lactate (MELD-LA) score was >21.5, and presence of cardiovascular and respiratory dysfunctions were significantly associated with mortality. NOD-ACLF and SOFC scores had the highest area under the receiver operating characteristic to predict mortality among all these.

Conclusion

The NOD-ACLF score is easy to calculate bedside and is a good predictor of mortality in ACLF patients performing similar or better to other scores.

To TIPS or Not to TIPS in High Risk of Variceal Rebleeding and Acute-on-Chronic Liver Failure

Variceal bleeding is a consequence of severe portal hypertension in patients with liver cirrhosis. Although the rate of bleeding has decreased over time, variceal bleeding in the presence of acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) carries a high risk of treatment failure and short-term mortality. Treatment and/or removal of precipitating events (mainly bacterial infection and alcoholic hepatitis) and decrease of portal pressure may improve outcome of patients with acute decompensation or ACLF. Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunts (TIPSs), especially in the preemptive situation, have been found to efficiently control bleeding, prevent rebleeding, and reduce short-term mortality. Therefore, TIPS placement should be considered as an option in the management of ACLF patients with variceal bleeding.

A real-world prospective study on dialysis-requiring acute kidney injury

Background

Current information about acute kidney injury (AKI) epidemiology in developing nations derives mainly from isolated centers, with few quality multicentric epidemiological studies. Our objective was to describe a large cohort of patients with dialysis-requiring AKI derived from ordinary clinical practice within a large metropolitan area of an emerging country, assessing the impact of age and several clinical predictors on patient survival across the spectrum of human life.

Methods

We analyzed registries drawn from 170 hospitals and medical facilities in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in an eleven-year period (2002–2012). The study cohort was comprised of 17,158 pediatric and adult patients. Data were analyzed through hierarchical logistic regression models and mixed-effects Cox regression for survival comparison across age strata.

Results

Severe AKI was mainly hospital-acquired (72.6%), occurred predominantly in the intensive care unit (ICU) (84.9%), and was associated with multiple organ failure (median SOFA score, 11; IQR, 6–13). The median age was 75 years (IQR, 59–83; range, 0–106 years). Community-acquired pneumonia was the most frequent admission diagnosis (23.8%), and sepsis was the overwhelming precipitating cause (72.1%). Mortality was 71.6% and was higher at the age extremes. Poor outcomes were driven by age, mechanical ventilation, vasopressor support, liver dysfunction, type 1 cardiorenal syndrome, the number of failing organs, sepsis at admission, later sepsis, the Charlson score, and ICU admission. Community-acquired AKI, male gender, and pre-existing chronic kidney disease were associated with better outcomes.

Conclusions

Our study adds robust information about the real-world epidemiology of dialysis-requiring AKI with considerable clinical detail. AKI is a heterogeneous syndrome with variable clinical presentations and outcomes, including differences in the age of presentation, comorbidities, frailty state, precipitation causes, and associated diseases. In the cohort studied, AKI characteristics bore more similarities to upper-income countries as opposed to the pattern traditionally associated with resource-limited economies.

Impact of metabolic risk factors on the severity and outcome of patients with alcohol-associated acute-on-chronic liver failure

BACKGROUND

Metabolic risk factors may impact the severity and outcome of alcoholic liver disease. The present study evaluated this effect in patients with alcohol-associated acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF).

METHODOLOGY

One thousand two hundred and sixteen prospectively enrolled patients with ACLF (males 98%, mean age 42.5 ± 9.4 years, mean CTP, MELD and AARC scores of 12 ± 1.4, 29.7 ± 7 and 9.8 ± 2 respectively) from the Asian Pacific Association for the Study of the Liver (APASL) ACLF Research Consortium (AARC) database were analysed retrospectively. Patients with or without metabolic risk factors were compared for severity (CTP, MELD, AARC scores) and day 30 and 90 mortality. Information on overweight/obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), hypertension and dyslipidaemia were available in 1028 (85%), 1019 (84%), 1017 (84%) and 965 (79%) patients respectively.

RESULTS

Overall, 392 (32%) patients died at day 30 and 528 (43%) at day 90. Overweight/obesity, T2DM, hypertension and dyslipidaemia were present in 154 (15%), 142 (14%), 66 (7%) and 141 (15%) patients, respectively, with no risk factors in 809 (67%) patients. Patients with overweight/obesity had higher MELD scores (30.6 ± 7.1 vs 29.2 ± 6.9, P = .007) and those with dyslipidaemia had higher AARC scores (10.4 ± 1.2 vs 9.8 ± 2, P = .014). Overweight/obesity was associated with increased day 30 mortality (HR 1.54, 95% CI 1.06-2.24, P = .023). None of other metabolic risk factors, alone or in combination, had any impact on disease severity or mortality. On multivariate analysis, overweight or obesity was significantly associated with 30-day mortality (aHR 1.91, 95% CI 1.41-2.59, P < .001), independent of age, CTP, MELD and AARC scores.

CONCLUSION

Overweight/obesity and dyslipidaemia increase the severity of alcohol-associated ACLF, and the former also increases the short-term mortality in these patients.

Mean Platelet Volume/Lymphocyte Ratio as a Prognostic Indicator for HBV-Related Decompensated Cirrhosis

Aim

To evaluate the prognostic role of the mean platelet volume/lymphocyte ratio (MPVLR) for mortality in patients with hepatitis B virus-related decompensated cirrhosis (HBV-DeCi).

Methods

The medical records of 101 patients with HBV-DeCi were retrospectively reviewed, and their baseline clinical and laboratory characteristics were extracted. The predictive value of the MPVLR for death was estimated using receiver operating characteristic curve analysis and a multivariate logistic regression model.

Results

Patients with HBV-DeCi in the high-MPVLR group exhibited significantly increased 90-day mortality compared with that of the patients within the low-MPVLR group, and MPVLR was an independent predictor of 90-day mortality in patients with HBV-DeCi.

Conclusions

Increased MPVLR is associated with poor outcomes in patients with HBV-DeCi and might be a useful component of future prognostic scores.

Models for acute on chronic liver failure development and mortality in a veterans affairs cohort

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The diagnosis of acute on chronic liver failure (ACLF) carries a high short-term mortality, making early identification of at-risk patients crucial. To date, there are no models that predict which patients with compensated cirrhosis will develop ACLF, and limited models exist to predict ACLF mortality. We sought to create novel risk prediction models using a large North American cohort.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective study of 75,922 patients with compensated cirrhosis from the Veterans Outcomes and Costs Associated with Liver Disease (VOCAL) dataset. Using 70% derivation/30% validation sets, we identified ACLF patients using the Asian Pacific Association of Liver (APASL) definition. Multivariable logistic regression was used to derive prediction models (called VOCAL-Penn) for developing ACLF at 3, 6, and 12 months. We then created prediction models for ACLF mortality at 28 and 90 days.

RESULTS

The VOCAL-Penn models for ACLF development had very good discrimination [concordance (C) statistics of 0.93, 0.92, and 0.89 at 3, 6, and 12 months, respectively] and calibration. The mortality models also had good discrimination at 28 and 90 days (C statistics 0.89 and 0.88, respectively), outperforming the Model for End-stage Liver Disease (MELD), MELD-sodium, and the APASL ACLF Research Consortium ACLF scores.

CONCLUSION

We have developed novel tools for predicting development of ACLF in compensated cirrhosis patients, as well as for ACLF mortality. These tools may be used to proactively guide patient follow-up, prognostication, escalation of care, and transplant evaluation. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves for predicting development of APASL ACLF at 3 months (a), 6 months (b), and 1 year (c).

Clinical Presentation and Mortality Determinants of Alcohol-Related Liver Disease: A Single-Center Experience of the Rising Menace from Eastern India

OBJECTIVES

Recently, the incidence of alcohol-related liver disease has been rising alarmingly in India with late presentation and short survival. Better delineation of factors affecting mortality is needed for optimal utilization of constrained resources like liver transplantation.

METHODS

Baseline data of 395 patients with alcohol-related liver disease including age, clinical presentation, alcohol parameters (amount, duration, type), laboratory parameters for detecting organ failure, and prognostic scores were compared between survivor and deceased groups. Further subgroup analysis of deceased patients was done to identify factors associated with early mortality in acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) and cirrhosis groups by multivariate analysis and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves. Only best supportive medical therapy was offered to all.

RESULTS

80 (20.3%) patients had alcoholic hepatitis (without cirrhosis) and recovered completely with abstinence. 315 (79.7%) had evidence of either cirrhosis (n = 182, 46.1%) or ACLF (n = 133, 33.6%) at presentation and all died within the next 2 years of follow-up, earlier in the ACLF cases. All deceased patients had been heavy drinkers for long periods (>85 g/day for >17 years). Higher age, amount of alcohol consumption, number of organ failures and discriminant function score predicted severe disease and early mortality, the latter being the best predictor. The European Foundation for the study of chronic liver failure consortium (CLIF-C) score has good applicability in Indian ACLF cohorts. Serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase was normal in 73.8% of deceased patients compared to only 12.5% of survivors. Abstinence did not result in complete normalization of deranged laboratory parameters in those who died.

CONCLUSION

Alcohol-related liver disease is serious with high short-term mortality, which has early identifiable but mostly irreversible factors. Urgent measures need to be taken to curb this rising menace.

Acute-on-chronic liver failure: consensus recommendations of the Asian Pacific association for the study of the liver (APASL): an update

The first consensus report of the working party of the Asian Pacific Association for the Study of the Liver (APASL) set up in 2004 on acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) was published in 2009. With international groups volunteering to join, the "APASL ACLF Research Consortium (AARC)" was formed in 2012, which continued to collect prospective ACLF patient data. Based on the prospective data analysis of nearly 1400 patients, the AARC consensus was published in 2014. In the past nearly four-and-a-half years, the AARC database has been enriched to about 5200 cases by major hepatology centers across Asia. The data published during the interim period were carefully analyzed and areas of contention and new developments in the field of ACLF were prioritized in a systematic manner. The AARC database was also approached for answering some of the issues where published data were limited, such as liver failure grading, its impact on the 'Golden Therapeutic Window', extrahepatic organ dysfunction and failure, development of sepsis, distinctive features of acute decompensation from ACLF and pediatric ACLF and the issues were analyzed. These initiatives concluded in a two-day meeting in October 2018 at New Delhi with finalization of the new AARC consensus. Only those statements, which were based on evidence using the Grade System and were unanimously recommended, were accepted. Finalized statements were again circulated to all the experts and subsequently presented at the AARC investigators meeting at the AASLD in November 2018. The suggestions from the experts were used to revise and finalize the consensus. After detailed deliberations and data analysis, the original definition of ACLF was found to withstand the test of time and be able to identify a homogenous group of patients presenting with liver failure. New management options including the algorithms for the management of coagulation disorders, renal replacement therapy, sepsis, variceal bleed, antivirals and criteria for liver transplantation for ACLF patients were proposed. The final consensus statements along with the relevant background information and areas requiring future studies are presented here.

Long-term Prognosis of Acute-on-Chronic Liver Failure Survivors

GOALS

We aimed to investigate significant factors influencing the long-term prognosis of patients who survived acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF).

BACKGROUND

The mortality of ACLF is predominantly affected by the organ failure severity. However, long-term outcomes of patients who survive ACLF are not known.

STUDY

A cohort of 1084 cirrhotic patients who survived for more than 3 months following acute deterioration of liver function was prospectively followed. ACLF was defined by the European Association for the Study of the Liver Chronic Liver Failure Consortium definition.

RESULTS

The mean follow-up duration was 19.4±9.9 months. In the subgroup of patients without previous acute decompensation (AD), ACLF occurrence did not affect long-term outcomes. However, in patients with previous AD, ACLF negatively affected long-term transplant-free survival even after overcoming ACLF (hazard ratio, 2.00, P=0.012). Previous AD was the significant predictive factor of long-term mortality and was independent of the Model for End-stage Liver Disease score in these ACLF-surviving patients. Organ failure severity did not affect transplant-free survival in patients who survived an ACLF episode.

CONCLUSIONS

A prior history of AD is the most important factor affecting long-term outcomes following an ACLF episode regardless of Model for End-stage Liver Disease score. Prevention of a first AD episode may improve the long-term transplant-free survival of liver cirrhosis patients.

Management of acute-on-chronic liver failure: an algorithmic approach

Acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) is a distinct syndrome of liver failure in a patient with chronic liver disease presenting with jaundice, coagulopathy and ascites and/or hepatic encephalopathy, developing following an acute hepatic insult and associated with high 28-day mortality. The definition though lacks global consensus, excludes patients with known distinct entities such as acute liver failure and those with end-stage liver disease. The initial Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome (SIRS) because of cytokine storm in relation to acute insult and/or subsequent development of sepsis due to immunoparalysis leads to extrahepatic organ failure. These cascades of events progress through a 'Golden Window' period of about 7 days, subsequent to which majority of the patients develop complications, such as sepsis and extrahepatic organ failure. Prevention of sepsis, support of organs and management of organ failure (commonly hepatic, renal, cerebral, coagulation) and early referral for transplant is crucial. The APASL ACLF research consortium (AARC) liver failure score is a dynamic prognostic model for management decisions and is superior to existing models. Aggressive multidisciplinary approach can lead to a transplant-free survival in nearly half of the cases. The present review provides an algorithmic approach to management of organ failure, sepsis prevention, use of dynamic prognostic models for management decision and is aimed to improve the skills for managing and improving the outcomes of such critically ill patients.

Monocyte human leukocyte antigen - Antigen D related, neutrophil oxidative burst and cytokine analysis in patients of decompensated cirrhosis with and without acute-on chronic liver failure

Background and aim

Due to a dysregulated immune response, patients with acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) have increased risk of infection and multi organ failure in comparison to compensated cirrhosis. The comparative data on the presence of ‘immune paresis’ in patients with ACLF and decompensated cirrhosis without ACLF is not available. Aim of the present study was to compare the immunological parameters in patients with decompensated cirrhosis with and without ACLF.

Methodology

In a prospective study, 76 patients with decompensated cirrhosis with (n = 38) and without (n = 38) ACLF and 10 healthy controls (HC) were evaluated for monocytic human leukocyte antigen–antigen D Related (HLA-DR) expression, mean density of HLA-DR expressed on the surface of these cells, neutrophil oxidative burst (NOB) capacity and serum levels of cytokines (IL-1, IL-6, IL-8, IL10, IL-12, and TNF-α).

Results

Patients of decompensated cirrhosis with and without ACLF demonstrated significantly lower mean percentage of monocytes expressing HLA-DR and quantitative increase in the NOB after stimulation with PMA when compared to HC. However there was no difference in mean percentage of monocytes with HLA-DR expression (43.61±26.56% vs. 43.10±20.98%) (p = 0.91), mean density of HLA-DR expression on the surface (30.34±29.32 vs. 41.71±52.13) (p = 0.42) and quantitative increase in NOB after stimulation with PMA (16.55±11.91 vs. 17.24±16.18) (p = 0.47) amongst patients with decompensated cirrhosis with and without ACLF. Patients with ACLF had significantly higher pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines in comparison to patients with decompensated cirrhosis without ACLF.

Conclusion

Patients with decompensated cirrhosis demonstrate a component of immune-paresis, however there is similar impairment in HLA–DR expression and NOB capacity in patients with and without ACLF. Both inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines are increased in patients with ACLF in comparison to patients with decompensated cirrhosis without ACLF.

Acute on Chronic Liver Failure-In-Hospital Predictors of Mortality in ICU

AIMS

We studied in-hospital predictors of mortality of acute on chronic liver failure (ACLF) in Indian patients.

METHODS

Patients admitted to the intensive care unit of our institute fulfilling the definition of ACLF based on the Asia-Pacific Association for Study of Liver Disease (APASL) consensus were included. Complete history and medical evaluation to assess the etiology of underlying liver cirrhosis and to identify the acute precipitating insult of worsening liver function was done. Data was prospectively recorded and various scoring systems and individual clinical and laboratory parameters were assessed to identify predictors of 28 days mortality.

RESULTS

64 out of 240 patients screened for ACLF were analyszed in the study. Median age was 44 years and 53% were males. Alcohol was the primary cause of cirrhosis in 60.93%. Infections and active alcoholism was the main precipitating acute insult in 43% and 37% patients respectively. 28% patients had history of ingestion of hepato-toxic drugs as the acute insult. More than one acute insult was seen in 37.5% patients and type-II hepatic injury was the most common type. 28 days in hospital mortality was 43.75% and was highest in patients with sepsis (67.8%). Presence of hepato-renal syndrome and need for ventilation was associated with poor outcome. Though multiple variables were significant in predicting mortality on univariate analysis, yet on regression model only APACHE II and shock could significantly predict mortality with odds ratio of 3.18 and 9.14 respectively. Highest mortality was seen with cerebral and lung as organ failure and mortality increased as the number of organ failure worsened. CLIF-SOFA and APACHE-II scores having area under curve > 0.8 had higher ability to predict mortality.

CONCLUSION

ACLF carries high short-term mortality and early intervention by liver transplantation should be considered in patients who shows high risk of mortality.

Toward a Better Definition of Acute-on-Chronic Liver Failure

Acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) has been defined differently in the East and West. The definitions given by Asian Pacific association for the study of liver (APASL) and American association for the study of liver (AASLD) and European association for the study of liver (EASL) working group have fundamental deficiencies and contradictions and do not encompass all patients with ACLF seen in the East and West. Although the World Gastroenterology Organisation (WGO) working party attempted to provide an improved definition but this too is not appropriate. In this article, we have compared the various definitions of ACLF given by APASL, EASL-AASLD and WGO and suggest a comprehensive definition for prospective collection of data on ACLF.

Liver Transplantation for Acute on Chronic Liver Failure

BACKGROUND

Acute-on chronic liver failure (ACLF) is defined as acute insult on previous liver disease that causes sudden worsening of liver functions.

METHODS

ACLF is characterized by high incidence of organ failure and prognosis is remarkably worse than patients with cirrhosis. Incidence of organ failures is very high despite best medical care and timely liver transplant before development of multi organ failure is associated with good survival rates.

RESULTS

At present, there are no reliable score or ways to correctly identify patients who are going to recover from patients who will need transplantation. Organ failures are important part of prognosis and to define need or futility of early liver transplantation.

CONCLUSION

Asian Pacific Association for the Study of the Liver (APASL) published their recommendations regarding ACLF in 2014. Several important studies regarding course/nature of disease and transplantation for ACLF became available after 2014 APASL recommendations and still there are some unanswered areas. The current review discusses various issues regarding liver transplantation in patients with ACLF.

Liver failure determines the outcome in patients of acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF): comparison of APASL ACLF research consortium (AARC) and CLIF-SOFA models

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) is a progressive disease associated with rapid clinical worsening and high mortality. Early prediction of mortality and intervention can improve patient outcomes. We aimed to develop a dynamic prognostic model and compare it with the existing models.

METHODS

A total of 1402 ACLF patients, enrolled in the APASL-ACLF Research Consortium (AARC) with 90-day follow-up, were analyzed. An ACLF score was developed in a derivation cohort (n = 480) and was validated (n = 922).

RESULTS

The overall survival of ACLF patients at 28 days was 51.7%, with a median of 26.3 days. Five baseline variables, total bilirubin, creatinine, serum lactate, INR and hepatic encephalopathy, were found to be independent predictors of mortality, with AUROC in derivation and validation cohorts being 0.80 and 0.78, respectively. AARC-ACLF score (range 5-15) was found to be superior to MELD and CLIF SOFA scores in predicting mortality with an AUROC of 0.80. The point scores were categorized into grades of liver failure (Gr I: 5-7; II: 8-10; and III: 11-15 points) with 28-day cumulative mortalities of 12.7, 44.5 and 85.9%, respectively. The mortality risk could be dynamically calculated as, with each unit increase in AARC-ACLF score above 10, the risk increased by 20%. A score of ≥11 at baseline or persisting in the first week was often seen among nonsurvivors (p = 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

The AARC-ACLF score is easy to use, dynamic and reliable, and superior to the existing prediction models. It can reliably predict the need for interventions, such as liver transplant, within the first week.

Impact of Hepatic and Extrahepatic Insults on the Outcome of Acute-on-Chronic Liver Failure

BACKGROUND

To study the differences in outcome and predictors of mortality in acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) precipitated by hepatic or extrahepatic insults.

METHODS

Consecutive patients of cirrhosis with acute decompensation were prospectively included and followed up for 90 days from admission. ACLF was defined based on chronic liver failure (CLIF) acute-on-chronic liver failure in cirrhosis (CANONIC study) criteria. Acute worsening due to acute viral hepatitis A and E, hepatitis B flare, alcoholic hepatitis, autoimmune hepatitis flare, or drug-induced liver injury were categorized as hepatic ACLF and that due to bacterial infection, upper gastrointestinal bleed or surgery as extrahepatic ACLF. Patients with both hepatic and extrahepatic insults were included in combined insult group.

RESULTS

Of 179 patients of acute decompensation, 122 had ACLF (hepatic insults 47 and extrahepatic insults 51). Alcohol (64.8%) was the most common etiology of cirrhosis while infection (36%) was the most common acute insult followed by alcoholic hepatitis (24.6%). Higher proportion of extrahepatic ACLF patients had history of prior decompensation than hepatic ACLF patients (62.7% vs. 27.7%, P < 0.001). There was no difference in mortality among hepatic and extrahepatic ACLF groups at 28 and 90 days (53.2% vs. 56.9%, P = 0.715 and 85% vs. 74.5%, P = 0.193, respectively). Area under receiver-operating curve (AUROC) for 28-day mortality in extrahepatic ACLF group was 0.788, 0.724, 0.718, 0.634, and 0.726 and in hepatic-ACLF group was 0.786, 0.625, 0.802, 0.761, and 0.648 for chronic liver failure-sequential organ failure assessment (CLIF-SOFA), model for end stage liver disease (MELD), integrated MELD score (iMELD), acute physiology and chronic health evaluation score (APACHE-II), and Child-Turcotte-Pugh score scores, respectively.

CONCLUSION

There is no difference in mortality among hepatic and extrahepatic ACLF groups at 28 and 90 days. iMELD and CLIF-SOFA have highest AUROC to predict 28-day mortality in hepatic and extrahepatic ACLF groups, respectively.

Reviewing the diagnostic criteria for acute-on-chronic liver failure

For over 20 years, acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) has taken multiple definitions and/or classifications. The definition outlines the acute and chronic insults to include a homogenous patient group with liver failure and an expected outcome in a specific time frame. Early and accurate diagnosis is essential as this inflammation of the liver may tilt the balance of liver destruction and regeneration adversely. Various factors such as superadded systemic sepsis, liver reserve, cause of primary chronic liver disease, state of immune system or the state of gut microbial flora might determine the ultimate prognosis. Areas covered: To date, there has been no universally accepted definition of ACLF. In this review, we discuss the strengths and weaknesses, controversies and basis for early identification and accurate diagnosis of ACLF. PubMed and Google scholar database searches were conducted, search terms included 'acute on chronic liver failure,' 'ACLF,' and 'diagnostic criteria.' Expert commentary: With recent advances in the management of advanced cirrhosis, research will gradually shift towards ACLF in the near future, focusing on the pathogenesis, new treatment options and improving survival. Once we improve understanding of this syndrome, newer definitions will evolve, thereby enabling earlier diagnosis and novel therapeutic avenues.

Acute-on-chronic Liver Failure

Acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) is a distinct entity that differs from acute liver failure and decompensated cirrhosis in timing, presence of treatable acute precipitant, and course of disease, with a potential for self-recovery. The core concept is acute deterioration of existing liver function in a patient of chronic liver disease with or without cirrhosis in response to an acute insult. The insult should be a hepatic one and presentation in the form of liver failure (jaundice, encephalopathy, coagulopathy, ascites) with or without extrahepatic organ failure in a defined time frame. ACLF is characterized by a state of deregulated inflammation. Initial cytokine burst presenting as SIRS, progression to CARS and associated immunoparalysis leads to sepsis and multi-organ failure. Early identification of the acute insult and mitigation of the same, use of nucleoside analogue in HBV-ACLF, steroid in severe alcoholic hepatitis, steroid in severe autoimmune hepatitis and/or bridging therapy lead to recovery, with a 90-day transplant-free survival rate of up to 50 %. First-week presentation is crucial concerning SIRS/sepsis, development, multiorgan failure and consideration of transplant. A protocol-based multi-disciplinary approach including critical care hepatology, early liver transplant before multi-organ involvement, or priority for organ allocation may improve the outcome. Presentation with extrahepatic organ involvement or inclusion of sepsis as an acute insult in definition restricts the therapy, i.e., liver transplant or bridging therapy, and needs serious consideration. Augmentation of regeneration, cell-based therapy, immunotherapy, and gut microbiota modulation are the emerging areas and need further research.

Saraswat V, Singh SP, Duseja A, Shukla A, Eapen CE, Kumar D, Pandey G, Venkataraman J, Puri P, Narayanswami K, Dhiman RK, Thareja S, Nijhawan S, Bhatia S, Zachariah U, Sonika U, Varghese T, Acharya SK. Acute-on-chronic liver failure in India: The Indian National Association for Study of the Liver consortium experience

BACKGROUND AND AIM

The aim of this study was to analyze etiologies and frequency of hepatic and extrahepatic organ failures (OFs) and outcome of acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) at 10 tertiary centers in India.

METHODS

In this retrospective study (2011-2014), patients satisfying Asian Pacific Association for the Study of the Liver definition of ACLF were included. Etiology of acute precipitating insult and chronic liver disease and outcomes were assessed. Occurrence and severity of OF were assessed by chronic liver failure-sequential organ failure assessment score.

RESULTS

The mean (±SD) age of 1049 consecutive ACLF patients was 44.7 ± 12.2 years; Eighty-two percent were men. Etiology of acute precipitants included alcohol 35.7%, hepatitis viruses (hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and hepatitis E) 21.4%, sepsis 16.6%, variceal bleeding 8.4%, drugs 5.7%, and cryptogenic 9.9%. Among causes of chronic liver disease, alcohol was commonest 56.7%, followed by cryptogenic and hepatitis viruses. Predictors of survival were analyzed for a subset of 381 ACLF patients; OF's liver, renal, coagulation, cerebral, respiratory, and failure were seen in 68%, 32%, 31.5%, 22.6%, 14.5%, and 15%, respectively. Fifty-seven patients had no OF, whereas 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 OFs were recorded in 126, 86, 72, 28, and 12 patients, respectively. The mortality increased progressively with increasing number of OFs (12.3% with no OF, 83.3% with five OFs). During a median hospital stay of 8 days, 42.6% (447/1049) of patients died. On multivariate analysis by Cox proportional hazard model, elevated serum creatinine (hazard ratio [HR] 1.176), advanced hepatic encephalopathy (HR 2.698), and requirement of ventilator support (HR 2.484) were independent predictors of mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

Alcohol was the commonest etiology of ACLF. Within a mean hospital stay of 8 days, 42% patients died. OFs independently predicted survival.

Acute on Chronic Liver Failure-What is in a 'Definition'?

Acute on chronic liver failure (ACLF) is a recently recognized syndrome and its definition has been evolving over last two decades. Currently, there is no universal consensus about the definition as kind of cases being seen in the Western world appear to be somewhat different from those that are seen in Asia Pacific region. But every one agrees that definition of ACLF should include following components. (a) The status of pre-existing liver disease, (b) defining the acute insult that leads to rapid deterioration of liver status, (c) time frame during which the acute insult can lead to rapid deterioration, (d) the quantification and definition of liver failure status after deterioration, which will determine the severity of ACLF, and (e) prediction of prognosis after analyzing first four components in the short and long terms. There is some consensus that number of organ failures may be the main determinant of prognosis. Whatever the definition is being used, the central role that superadded infections play in ACLF cannot be denied and need to be tackled aggressively. Apart from that, recovery may be possible if the acute insult or the baseline disease is curable, i.e. with the use of nucleoside analogs for hepatitis B, and corticosteroids for severe autoimmune hepatitis. Development of dynamic criteria with observations in Hospital may improve our understanding of prognosis as well as our approach to the management of ACLF.

Child-Pugh, MELD, and ALBI scores for predicting the in-hospital mortality in cirrhotic patients with acute-on-chronic liver failure

OBJECTIVES

Our study aimed to evaluate the discriminative abilities of Child-Pugh, model for end-stage liver disease (MELD), and albumin-bilirubin (ALBI) scores in predicting the in-hospital mortality in cirrhotic patients with acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF).

METHODS

Cirrhotic patients with ACLF admitted between 2010 January and 2014 June were retrospectively reviewed. Areas under the receiver operating characteristic curves (AUROCs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated.

RESULTS

One hundred patients were eligible for the Asia-Pacific Association for the Study of the Liver (APASL) criteria. AUROCs of Child-Pugh, MELD, and ALBI scores in predicting the in-hospital mortality was 0.63 (95%CI: 0.52-0.72, P = 0.05), 0.75 (95%CI: 0.65-0.83, P < 0.0001), and 0.53 (95%CI: 0.42-0.63, P = 0.69), respectively. Eighty-eight patients were eligible for the EASL/AASLD criteria. AUROCs of Child-Pugh, MELD, and ALBI scores in predicting the in-hospital mortality were 0.59 (95%CI: 0.48-0.69, P = 0.14), 0.57 (95%CI: 0.46-0.68, P = 0.26), and 0.57 (95%CI: 0.46-0.67, P = 0.29), respectively. There was no significant difference among them.

CONCLUSION

Child-Pugh, MELD, and ALBI scores might be ineffective in predicting the in-hospital mortality of cirrhosis with ACLF.

Acute-on-chronic liver failure in cirrhosis

The definition of acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) remains contested. In Europe and North America, the term is generally applied according to the European Association for the Study of the Liver-Chronic Liver Failure (EASL-CLIF) Consortium guidelines, which defines this condition as a syndrome that develops in patients with cirrhosis and is characterized by acute decompensation, organ failure and high short-term mortality. One-third of patients who are hospitalized for acute decompensation present with ACLF at admission or develop the syndrome during hospitalization. ACLF frequently occurs in a closed temporal relationship to a precipitating event, such as bacterial infection or acute alcoholic, drug-induced or viral hepatitis. However, no precipitating event can be identified in approximately 40% of patients. The mechanisms of ACLF involve systemic inflammation due to infections, acute liver damage and, in cases without precipitating events, probably intestinal translocation of bacteria or bacterial products. ACLF is graded into three stages (ACLF grades 1-3) on the basis of the number of organ failures, with higher grades associated with increased mortality. Liver and renal failures are the most common organ failures, followed by coagulation, brain, circulatory and respiratory failure. The 28-day mortality rate associated with ACLF is 30%. Depending on the grade, ACLF can be reversed using standard therapy in only 16-51% of patients, leaving a considerable proportion of patients with ACLF that remains steady or progresses. Liver transplantation in selected patients with ACLF grade 2 and ACLF grade 3 increases the 6-month survival from 10% to 80%.

Characteristics, Diagnosis and Prognosis of Acute-on-Chronic Liver Failure in Cirrhosis Associated to Hepatitis B

The diagnostic and prognostic criteria of acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) were developed in patients with no Hepatitis B virus (HBV) cirrhosis (CANONIC study). The aims of this study were to evaluate whether the diagnostic (CLIF-C organ failure score; CLIF-C OFs) criteria can be used to classify patients; and the prognostic score (CLIF-C ACLF score) could be used to provide prognostic information in HBV cirrhotic patients with ACLF. 890 HBV associated cirrhotic patients with acute decompensation (AD) were enrolled. Using the CLIF-C OFs, 33.7% (300 patients) were diagnosed as ACLF. ACLF was more common in the younger patients and in those with no previous history of decompensation. The most common organ failures were ‘hepatic’ and ‘coagulation’. As in the CANONIC study, 90-day mortality was extremely low in the non-ACLF patients compared with ACLF patients (4.6% vs 50%, p < 0.0001). ACLF grade and white cell count, were independent predictors of mortality. CLIF-C ACLFs accurately predicted short-term mortality, significantly better than the MELDs and a disease specific score generated for the HBV patients. Current study indicates that ACLF is a clinically and pathophysiology distinct even in HBV patients. Consequently, diagnostic criteria, prognostic scores and probably the management of ACLF should base on similar principles.

Evaluation of neutrophil/leukocyte ratio and organ failure score as predictors of reversibility and survival following an acute-on-chronic liver failure event

AIM

Acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) is defined as an acute deterioration of liver disease with high mortality in patients with cirrhosis. The early mortality in ACLF is associated with organ failure and high leukocyte count. The time needed to reverse this condition and the factors affecting mortality after the early 30-day-period were evaluated.

METHODS

One hundred and ninety-seven consecutive patients with cirrhosis were included. Patients were prospectively followed up for 180 days.

RESULTS

ACLF was diagnosed in 54.8% of the patients. Infection was the most common precipitating event in patients with ACLF. On multivariate analysis, only the neutrophil/leukocyte ratio and Chronic Liver Failure Consortium Organ Failure (CLIF-C OF) score were associated with mortality. Hazard ratios for mortality of patients with ACLF compared with those without at different time end-points post-enrollment revealed that the relative risk of death in the ACLF group was 8.54 during the first 30-day period and declined to 1.94 during the second period of observation. The time varying effect of neutrophil/leukocyte ratio and CLIF-C score was negative (1% and 18% decline in the hazard ratio per month) while that of Model for End-Stage Liver Disease (MELD) was positive (3% increase in the hazard ratio per month).

CONCLUSION

The condition of ACLF was reversible in patients who survived. During the 30-180-day period following the acute event, the probability of death in ACLF became gradually similar to the non-ACLF group. The impact of inflammatory response and organ failure on survival is powerful during the first 30-day period and weakens thereafter while that of MELD increases.

Acute-on-chronic liver failure: terminology, mechanisms and management

Acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) is a distinct clinical entity and differs from acute liver failure and decompensated cirrhosis in timing, presence of acute precipitant, course of disease and potential for unaided recovery. The definition involves outlining the acute and chronic insults to include a homogenous patient group with liver failure and an expected outcome in a specific timeframe. The pathophysiology of ACLF relates to persistent inflammation, immune dysregulation with initial wide-spread immune activation, a state of systematic inflammatory response syndrome and subsequent sepsis due to immune paresis. The disease severity and outcome can be predicted by both hepatic and extrahepatic organ failure(s). Clinical recovery is expected with the use of nucleoside analogues for hepatitis B, and steroids for severe alcoholic hepatitis and, possibly, severe autoimmune hepatitis. Artificial liver support systems help remove toxins and metabolites and serve as a bridge therapy before liver transplantation. Hepatic regeneration during ongoing liver failure, although challenging, is possible through the use of growth factors. Liver transplantation remains the definitive treatment with a good outcome. Pre-emptive antiviral agents for hepatitis B before chemotherapy to prevent viral reactivation and caution in using potentially hepatotoxic drugs can prevent the development of ACLF.

Overview on acute-on-chronic liver failure

Liver failure (LF) is defined as severe dysfunction in hepatic synthesis, detoxification, and metabolism induced by various etiologies. Clinical presentation of LF typically includes severe jaundice, coagulation disorder, hepatic encephalopathy, and ascites. LF can be classified into acute LF, acute-on-chronic LF (ACLF), and chronic LF. ACLF has been demonstrated as a distinct syndrome with unique clinical presentation and outcomes. The severity, curability, and reversibility of ACLF have attracted considerable attention. Remarkable developments in ACLF-related conception, diagnostic criteria, pathogenesis, and therapy have been achieved. However, this disease, especially its diagnostic criteria, remains controversial. In this paper, we systemically reviewed the current understanding of ACLF from its definition, etiology, pathophysiology, pathology, and clinical presentation to management by thoroughly comparing important findings between east and west countries, as well as those from other regions. We also discussed the controversies, challenges, and needs for future studies to promote the standardization and optimization of the diagnosis and treatment for ACLF.

Characteristics and Discrepancies in Acute-on-Chronic Liver Failure: Need for a Unified Definition

BACKGROUND & AIM

To investigate the prevalence, mortalities, and patient characteristics of Acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) according to the AARC (Asian Pacific Association for the Study of the Liver ACLF Research Consortium) and European Association for the Study of the Liver CLIF-C (Chronic Liver Failure Consortium) definitions.

METHODS

We collected retrospective data for 1470 hospitalized patients with chronic liver disease (CLD) and acute deterioration between January 2013 and December 2013 from 21 university hospitals in Korea.

RESULTS

Of the patients assessed, the prevalence of ACLF based on the AARC and CLIF-C definitions was 9.5% and 18.6%, respectively. The 28-day and 90-day mortality rates were higher in patients with ACLF than in those without ACLF. Patients who only met the CLIF-C definition had significantly lower 28-day and 90-day survival rates than those who only met the AARC definition (68.0% vs. 93.9%, P<0.001; 55.1% vs. 92.4%, P<0.001). Among the patients who had non-cirrhotic CLD, the 90-day mortality of the patients with ACLF was higher than of those without ACLF, although not significant (33.3% vs. 6.0%, P = 0.192). Patients with previous acute decompensation (AD) within 1- year had a lower 90-day survival rate than those with AD more than 1 year prior or without previous AD (81.0% vs. 91.9% or 89.4%, respectively, all P<0.001). Patients who had extra-hepatic organ failure without liver failure had a similar 90-day survival rate to those who had liver failure as a prerequisite (57.0% vs. 60.6%, P = 0.391).

CONCLUSIONS

The two ACLF definitions result in differences in mortality and patient characteristics among ACLF patients. We suggest that non-cirrhotic CLD, previous AD within 1 year, and extra-hepatic organ failure should be included in the ACLF diagnostic criteria. In addition, further studies are necessary to develop a universal definition of ACLF.

Defining acute-on-chronic liver failure: East, West or Middle ground?

Acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF), a newly recognized clinical entity seen in hospitalized patients with chronic liver disease including cirrhosis, is associated with high short- and medium term morbidity and mortality. None of the definitions of ACLF proposed so far have been universally accepted, the two most commonly used being those proposed by the Asia-Pacific Association for the Study of Liver (APASL) and the European Association for the Study of Liver - Chronic Liver Failure (EASL-CLIF) consortium. On paper both definitions and diagnostic criteria appear to be different from each other, reflecting the differences in cut-off values for individual parameters used in diagnosis, the acute insult or precipitating event and the underlying chronic liver disease. Data directly comparing these two criteria are limited, and available studies reveal different outcomes when the two are applied to the same set of patients. However a review of the literature suggests that both definitions do not seem to identify the same set of patients. The definition given by the APASL consortium is easier to apply in day-to-day practice but the EASL-CLIF criteria appear to better predict mortality in ACLF. The World Gastroenterology Organization working party have proposed a working definition of ACLF which will identify patients from whom relevant data can be collected so that the similarities and the differences between the two regions, if any, can be clearly defined.

Acute-on-chronic liver failure precipitated by hepatic injury is distinct from that precipitated by extrahepatic insults

Patients with acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) represent a heterogeneous population. The aim of the study is to identify distinct groups according to the etiologies of precipitating events. A total of 405 ACLF patients were identified from 1,361 patients with cirrhosis with acute decompensation and categorized according to the types of acute insults. Clinical characteristics and prognosis between the hepatic group and extrahepatic group were compared, and the performance of prognostic models was tested in different groups. Two distinct groups (hepatic-ACLF and extrahepatic-ACLF) were identified among the ACLF population. Hepatic-ACLF was precipitated by hepatic insults and had relatively well-compensated cirrhosis with frequent liver and coagulation failure. In contrast, extrahepatic-ACLF was exclusively precipitated by extrahepatic insults, characterized by more severe underlying cirrhosis and high occurrence of extrahepatic organ failures (kidney, cerebral, circulation, and respiratory systems). Both groups had comparably high short-term mortality (28-day transplant-free mortality: 48.3% vs. 50.7%; P = 0.22); however, the extra-hepatic-ACLF group had significantly higher 90-day and 1-year mortality (90-day: 58.9% vs. 68.3%, P = 0.035; 1-year: 63.9% vs. 74.6%, P = 0.019). In hepatic-ACLF group, the integrated Model for End-Stage Liver Disease (iMELD) score had the highest area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (auROC = 0.787) among various prognostic models in predicting 28-day mortality, whereas CLIF-Consortium scores for ACLF patients (CLIF-C-ACLF) had the highest predictive value in the other group (auROC = 0.779).

CONCLUSIONS

ACLF precipitated by hepatic insults is distinct from ACLF precipitated by extrahepatic insults in clinical presentation and prognosis. The iMELD score may be a better predictor for hepatic-ACLF short-term prognosis, whereas CLIF-C-ACLF may be better for extrahepatic-ACLF patients.

Pattern and profile of chronic liver disease in acute on chronic liver failure

The etiology of the chronic liver disease (CLD) in patients with acute on chronic liver failure (ACLF) may vary from region to region. The major cause of underlying CLD is viral (hepatitis B and C) in the East, while it is alcohol related in the West and in some parts of the Indian subcontinent. Autoimmune liver disease and Wilson's disease are the major underlying etiologies in the pediatric age group. The patients with CLD without cirrhosis should be included when defining ACLF. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease related chronic liver insult in patients with known risk factors for progressive disease should be taken as a chronic liver disease in the setting of ACLF, whereas fatty liver with normal aminotransferases in low risk patients should not. The patients with CLD and previous decompensation should be excluded. Diagnosis of chronic liver disease in the setting of ACLF is made by history, physical examination and previously available or recent laboratory, endoscopic or radiological investigations. A liver biopsy through the transjugular route may help in cases where the presence of underlying CLD or its cause is not clear. The need of liver biopsy in ACLF should, however, be individualized. Standardization of liver biopsy assessment is essential for a uniform approach to the diagnosis and treatment of CLD and acute insult. Tools to measure liver stiffness may aid in identifying patients with advanced fibrosis. Studies are needed to validate the performance of these tests in the setting of ACLF.