The Anatomical Society's core anatomy syllabus for undergraduate nursing

The need for creation of new learning outcomes in core curricula publications on differences in sex development and transgender anatomy

Despite recognition that sex is a spectrum there are no learning outcomes in the Anatomical Society's Core Curricula that effectively deal with the anatomy of differences in sex development or the anatomy of transgender individuals who have undergone gender affirming surgery. We believe this is a gap that needs to be plugged urgently. Particularly in relation to healthcare students the consequence of perpetuating the stereotype of sexual dimorphism as a norm could marginalise these communities of patients even further. We believe that action in the form of a Delphi process to create new outcomes can be a first step in creating change that will lead to a more inclusive anatomy education.

Human anatomy curriculum reform for undergraduate nursing students: An exploratory study

This study aims to cultivate students' independent learning capacity, promote the interdisciplinary integration of "nursing + anatomy," and establish a curriculum system to enhance applied nursing abilities based on project-based teaching reform of everyday clinical nursing operations. A total of 151 second-year (class of 2021) undergraduate nursing students at a Chinese university were selected for this study. By adjusting the curriculum, reconstructing the teaching contents, employing the "hybrid + flip" teaching method based on BOPPPS (bridge-in, outcomes, preassessment, participatory learning, post-evaluation, summary), and implementing a teaching system based on the "three re-three linkage," a Human Anatomy curriculum with a focus on basic anatomical knowledge was developed and connected with nursing clinical operation practice. The restructuring of the course content received unanimous recognition from both the teaching staff and the students. Notably, students in the class of 2021 achieved significantly higher grades than did students in the class of 2020, who received traditional face-to-face instruction (p < 0.01). These results indicate enhanced clinical application skills among the former group of students. following the implementation of instructional reforms during one semester, students exhibited notable improvements in motivation, program implementation, self-management, and interpersonal communication. A statistically significant increase in overall scores for self-directed learning capacities over the preinstructional period was observed (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the findings of the student satisfaction surveys reflected highly favorable perceptions of the enriched instructional format, high levels of course engagement, frequent faculty-student interactions, and augmented overall competence. The practical implementation of the reform in the context of a Human Anatomy course for undergraduate nursing students led to significant positive outcomes, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of teaching and learning. Students' clinical application abilities and self-directed learning capacities notably improved, while overall satisfaction with the course remained high.

Establishing a veterinary anatomy core syllabus through a modified Delphi process

Anatomy forms a key component of veterinary curricula, but, in the context of an evolving profession, curricula are adapting and changing accordingly. There is a lack of guidance for educators regarding the levels of anatomical knowledge required for a graduate to be considered safe or competent. A formal review of veterinary anatomy learning outcomes (LOs) is therefore timely to support curriculum development in this rapidly evolving field. This study aimed to create a set of LOs which reflect the recommended core requirements for a new graduate veterinarian. A consensus approach using a modified Delphi method was used. The Delphi panel consisted of 23 experienced and active veterinary anatomy educators from veterinary schools within the UK and Ireland. The process had four stages: (1) Research team review, pre-screening and modification of a list of existing LOs (adapted from the Core Regional Anatomy Syllabus) which then formed the initial set of outcomes sent for review; (2) Delphi Round 1; (3) Delphi Round 2; (4) Post-Delphi final screening and review. Qualitative data outlining the rationale for modification and rejection of LOs were analysed via content analysis. 167 LOs were initially presented to the Delphi panel in Round 1. 64 of those were accepted, 79 recommended for modification and 23 rejected. 122 LOs were presented to the Delphi panel in Round 2. Of these, 86 outcomes were accepted, 10 modified and 26 rejected. 160 LOs were ultimately accepted and form the Veterinary Anatomy Core Syllabus. Key themes arising from analysis include the removal of unnecessary detail and increased focus on the relevance of competencies required of a new veterinary graduate. The syllabus presented may be used by curriculum planners, teachers and students within veterinary education worldwide.

Enhancing anatomy education through cooperative learning: harnessing virtual reality for effective gross anatomy learning

The advent of virtual reality (VR) in education offers unique possibilities for facilitating cooperative learning strategies, particularly in fields demanding intricate spatial understanding, such as gross anatomy. This study investigates the impact of integrating cooperative learning strategies within a VR-based gross anatomy curriculum, focusing on enhancing students' anatomy knowledge and skills. We analyzed the performance of two cohorts of first-year nursing students across five semesters (2016-2020), where traditional learning methods were used in the first three semesters (2016-2018), and a VR-based cooperative learning approach was adopted in the last two semesters (2019-2020). Our findings suggest that the VR-based cooperative learning group achieved significantly higher scores in their gross anatomy laboratory courses compared to their counterparts learning through traditional methods. This research provides valuable insights into how the integration of VR technology and cooperative learning strategies can not only enhance learning outcomes but also improve the VR learning experience by reducing motion sickness. It accentuates the potential of VR-based cooperative learning as an impactful educational tool in anatomy education. Future research should further explore the optimal integration of VR and cooperative learning strategies in diverse course types and their potential to enhance educational outcomes and the learning experience.

Further assessment of the clinical relevance of anatomical structures through PubMed and other measures

A previous paper has demonstrated a statistically significant moderate correlation between the number of citations obtained from PubMed and a Delphi study for 251 anatomical structures of the Head and Neck region, suggesting that clinical significance is a major driver of research involving anatomical structures. This raises the possibility that these ranks could be an objective measure of clinical relevance of individual anatomical structures. In the present study, we revisited the rankings of the PubMed results from the previous paper and compared it with a Delphi study for 450 musculoskeletal structures. PubMed ranks were derived using different search parameters; a PubMed search with quotations yielded a moderate, statistically significant correlation coefficient of 0.639 with the musculoskeletal dataset. Additionally, we developed a Python tool, PDF Term Search, to calculate the frequency of anatomical terms in four authoritative textbooks, and these frequencies exhibited moderate significant correlations ranging (0.549-0.646) with our PubMed-derived ranks. We further explored strategies to improve the accuracy of our PubMed results by addressing limitations identified in the previous paper. We refined the syntax of search queries for 500 anatomical structures, resulting in marked improvement in the correlation coefficients with the musculoskeletal dataset, demonstrating clear avenues for future iterations of PubMed-derived ranks. We also created a spreadsheet of 2181 anatomical structures ranked using PubMed, published Delphi studies, and authoritative texts, providing a resource for anatomical educators who are adjusting their curricula to better train future healthcare practitioners.

A core syllabus for histology within the medical curriculum - The cardiovascular and lymphoid systems, the respiratory and digestive systems, and the integument

Medical courses worldwide are undergoing significant curricular changes, including the teaching and learning of histology. In order to set international standards for the anatomical sciences, the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists (IFAA) is developing core anatomical syllabuses by means of Delphi panels. Already published is a core syllabus for the teaching of the cell and the basic tissues within medicine. Here, we record the deliberations of an IFAA Delphi panel commissioned to develop core subject matter for the teaching within a medical histology course of the cardiovascular and lymphatic circulatory system, the lymphoid, respiratory, and digestive systems, and the integument. The Delphi panel was comprised of academics from multiple countries who were required to review relevant histological topics/items by evaluating each topic as being either "Essential," "Important," "Acceptable," or "Not required." Topics that were rated by over 60% of the panelists as being "Essential" are reported in this paper as being core topics for the teaching of medical histology. Also reported are topics that, while not reaching the threshold for being designated as core material, may be recommended or not required within the curriculum.

A proposed anatomy syllabus for entry-level physiotherapists in the United Kingdom: A modified Delphi methodology by physiotherapists who teach anatomy

The ever-increasing scope of physiotherapy practice is raising questions on what anatomical knowledge and skills ought to be taught within qualifying physiotherapy degree programmes in the United Kingdom (UK). The aim of the study was to create core anatomical knowledge and skills learning objectives to inform knowledge and skills for entry-level physiotherapists in the UK. A two phased modified Delphi methodology created a consensual anatomy curriculum. A Research-Team-Expert-Panel of four physiotherapists who teach anatomy proposed Anatomy Learning Objectives (Anat-LOs) and accompanying clinical rationales relevant for newly qualified entry-level physiotherapists. A Teacher-Expert-Panel of nine physiotherapists who taught anatomy to physiotherapy students in the UK reviewed Anat-LOs in two consecutive Delphi Rounds, and rated and commented on each Anat-LO. After each Delphi Round, the Research-Team-Expert-Panel reviewed the ratings and comments from the Teacher-Expert-Panel and banked Anat-LOs that passed the 85% acceptance threshold. There were 182 banked Anat-LOs that spanned all eight areas: Introductory Concepts, Principles and Basic Histology; Head and Neck; Thorax; Abdomen, Pelvis and Perineum; Upper Limb; Lower Limb; Spine; and Neuroanatomy regions/systems. The Anat-LOs develop both anatomical knowledge and key anatomical skills, such as palpation and conducting manual tests on model patients. A first ever core anatomy curriculum for entry-level physiotherapists has been created for entry-level physiotherapists, typically Band-5 NHS physiotherapists, and takes an integrated learning approach. The anatomy curriculum brings clarity to students, teachers, clinical supervisors and future employers on the expected anatomical standards for entry-level physiotherapists.

A core musculoskeletal anatomy syllabus for undergraduate physical therapy student education

Knowledge of musculoskeletal anatomy is fundamental to physical therapy education. Although detailed anatomy syllabi have been developed for medical and other health professional students, none are available for training physical therapists. Therefore, the aim of this project was to produce a core musculoskeletal anatomy syllabus specific to physical therapy students, utilizing a modified Delphi approach. An international Delphi panel (n = 53) composed of anatomists and clinicians involved in physical therapy education considered a total of 2193 anatomical items arranged in four categories (musculoskeletal concepts; vertebral column; pectoral girdle and upper limb; pelvic girdle and lower limb). Using specific criteria, items were rated on the basis of whether they were considered essential knowledge for a competent physical therapy student, and were categorized as core, recommended, not recommended or not core. Of the 2193 items, 1700 (77.5%) were rated as core or recommended. For musculoskeletal concepts, 70% (233/332) of items were categorized as core/recommended. Approximately 80% of items in the other three categories were considered core/recommended-vertebral column (355/440), pectoral girdle and upper limb (513/657), and pelvic girdle and lower limb (599/764). This project presents a detailed musculoskeletal anatomy syllabus which may be used within a physical therapy curriculum. A key difference compared to published musculoskeletal anatomy syllabi for medical students is that a greater number of items are considered core/recommended (approximately 80% vs. 50%). These findings will now be considered and deliberated in accordance with the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists modified Delphi approach.

Quantifying research on anatomical structures, a potential new metric for assessing clinical relevance

Human anatomy remains an integral part of medical education, and recent studies have documented an emerging consensus on the key anatomical learning objectives for physicians and other health professionals in training, both at the graduate and postgraduate levels. Despite this progress, less attention has been given to assessing the clinical relevance of individual anatomical structures, and which structures students should master to achieve these learning objectives. In this study we hypothesized that published research involving individual anatomical structures is largely driven by the clinical relevance of these structures, and that tabulating the number of such publications can provide an up-to-date, evolving metric of clinical relevance. To test this hypothesis, we developed a semi-automated search routine that uses the PubMed database to quantify the publication frequency of anatomical structures and compared that to a previous study that assessed the importance of structures of the head and neck using the Delphi method, a formal procedure of generating expert consensus. Using our new approach, we were able to rank the research intensity of 2182 anatomical structures included in Grant's Dissector, a widely used textbook for anatomical dissection. Furthermore, a sample of these PubMed-derived ranks had a highly significant, positive correlation with ranks derived from a consensus of experts. Similar results were obtained when PubMed searches were restricted to journals that focus on applying knowledge in a clinical setting. Our study provides a potential new tool for anatomical educators who are aligning their basic science curricula with the clinical knowledge expected of medical graduates.

Anatomy education for medical students in the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland in 2019: A 20-year follow-up

Anatomical education in the United Kingdom (UK) and Ireland has long been under scrutiny, especially since the reforms triggered in 1993 by the General Medical Council's "Tomorrow's Doctors." The aim of the current study was to investigate the state of medical student anatomy education in the UK and Ireland in 2019. In all, 39 medical schools completed the survey (100% response rate) and trained 10,093 medical students per year cohort. The teachers comprised 760 individuals, of these 143 were employed on full-time teaching contracts and 103 were employed on education and research contracts. Since a previous survey in 1999, the number of part-time staff has increased by 300%, including a significant increase in the number of anatomy demonstrators. In 2019, anatomy was predominantly taught to medical students in either a system-based or hybrid curriculum. In all, 34 medical schools (87%) used human cadavers to teach anatomy, with a total of 1,363 donors being used per annum. Gross anatomy teaching was integrated with medical imaging in 95% of medical schools, embryology in 81%, living anatomy in 78%, neuroanatomy in 73%, and histology in 68.3%. Throughout their five years of study, medical students are allocated on average 85 h of taught time for gross anatomy, 24 h for neuroanatomy, 24 h for histology, 11 h for living anatomy, and 10 for embryology. In the past 20 years, there has been an average loss of 39 h dedicated to gross anatomy teaching and a reduction in time dedicated to all other anatomy sub-disciplines.

Nurses' perspectives on the application of humanistic anatomical knowledge in clinical practice

Knowledge of human anatomy is vital for nurses. Medical educators use a variety of educational pedagogies, including the use of cadavers, to cultivate nursing students into competent and professional care providers and to help them gain authentic experience and knowledge before entering the workplace. Studies have provided numerous examples of students with positive learning experiences in human-centric (humanistic) anatomy courses; however, whether these positive experiences translate into effective clinical practice remains largely unknown. This study explored nurses' perspectives on the effects of a humanistic anatomy program on their nursing practice. Focus groups with semi-structured interview guidelines were conducted to collect data. Twenty-one nurses working in hospitals in Taiwan participated and divided themselves into four groups on the basis of willingness to participate and availability. The interviews were recorded using smartphones, and the recordings were transcribed using a computer. The transcriptions were then checked word by word artificially and analyzed by hand. Three main themes emerged during the analysis: adapting to the professional journey, managing time when providing humanistic care, and cultivating professionalism. The results demonstrate educators' expectations that humanistic anatomy education for nursing students expands students' professional knowledge and helps them develop humanistic competencies as professional nurses.

Musculoskeletal anatomy core syllabus for Australian chiropractic programs: A pilot study

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study is to conduct a pilot survey to determine core anatomy content for chiropractic curriculum based on the perception of chiropractors and anatomy educators involved in teaching in an Australian chiropractic program.

METHODS

A survey of anatomical structures previously used in a medical survey, with similar criteria for synthesizing responses, was used and classified according to whether the respondents rated an item as essential, important, acceptable, or not required in a chiropractic program. The item was scored as core if ≥60% of respondents rated it essential, recommended if 30%-59% rated it essential, not recommended if 20%-29% rated it essential, or not core if <20% rated it essential.

RESULTS

The respondents rated 81.6% of all musculoskeletal concepts as core and 18.4% as recommended, 88.8% of the vertebral column items as core, and 11.2% of the items as recommended, 69.4% upper limb and pectoral girdle items as core, 23.7% of items as recommended, 5.5% as not recommended and 1.3% as not core items for inclusion, 85.3% of all lower limb and pelvic girdle items as core, 14.4% as recommended and 0.3% not recommended.

CONCLUSION

Chiropractors and anatomists involved in teaching in an Australian chiropractic program rated most musculoskeletal items as essential for inclusion in a chiropractic teaching program to ensure adequate preparation for safe practice and to promote alignment with the standards of anatomy education delivered into the clinical professions.

Anatomy teaching in Saudi medical colleges- is there necessity of the national core syllabus of anatomy

Curricular updates in medicine resulted in changes in gross anatomy teaching. We aim to find the trends and methods of gross anatomy teaching in medicine programs in Saudi Arabia. Further, examine whether the data would help to discuss whether a core Anatomy syllabus is required. A survey questionnaire based on the earlier studies, was sent to the anatomy faculty of 25 medical colleges to collect the data on the pedagogic and dissection/laboratory approaches, inclusion of radiological, clinical, surface anatomy sessions, and the total number of hours allocated for anatomy education. A total of 15 responses were received from different medical colleges of which nine provided complete details. A wide variation in the component and mode of delivery of anatomy was observed. The number of hours for the anatomy course ranged from 89 to 388 hours. These data will provide an update on gross anatomy teaching approaches, which will help in making informed decisions in course revisions and adopting the best practices. The variations in anatomy course with short duration raises concern about whether the essential learning outcomes are achieved to prepare a skillful and safe clinician? do we require a core syllabus of Anatomy to be adopted at the national level to achieve the essential learning outcomes? The Anatomical Society, UK has developed core syllabi of Anatomy for undergraduate medical, dental, nursing, and pharmacy students, which can serve as a guide in developing the core syllabus of Anatomy for medicine in Saudi.

Skeletal muscle coverage in undergraduate courses: a comparison of stand-alone human anatomy and anatomy and physiology (A&P) courses

Anecdotal data suggest great variation in breadth and depth of skeletal muscle coverage between undergraduate human anatomy (HA) and anatomy and physiology (A&P) courses. This manuscript is the second in a series (Reynolds A, Goodwin M, O'Loughlin VD. Adv Physiol Educ 46: 309-318, 2022. doi:https://doi.org/10.1152/advan.00084.2021) that methodically assesses skeletal muscle content coverage across undergraduate HA and A&P courses. The authors developed an online skeletal muscle coverage survey and collected 342 responses worldwide, 156 from instructors of HA courses and 186 from A&P course instructors. Demographic results showed that HA courses are primarily taught at 4-year baccalaureate institutions, have relatively larger class sizes, and are more likely to use human (vs. animal) prosections or dissections. In contrast, A&P courses are primarily taught at community colleges, have relatively smaller class sizes, and are more likely to use animal (vs. human) dissections. HA courses tend to require their students to learn all skeletal muscle aspects (i.e., identification, action, attachments, innervation), whereas A&P courses tend to focus on muscle identification or action only. The proportions of courses that require identification of large, superficial skeletal muscles are similar between the two course types. However, HA courses are more likely to require their students to identify deeper and smaller muscles, including more distal appendicular muscles and pelvic muscles. These differences likely are due, in part, to the more anatomical focus of HA courses and the slightly different student populations between these courses. These findings provide much-needed information about muscular system coverage between HA and A&P courses and may guide instructor discussions about curricula.

Nursing students' experiences and perceptions of an anatomy laboratory session: Mixed methods study

Many nursing curricula do not offer anatomy laboratories and exposure to cadaveric material. In this mixed methods study, nursing students' perceptions and experiences from an anatomy laboratory session were examined. Students from two academic nursing programs (a four-year general baccalaureate nursing program and a two-year accelerated nursing program for non-nursing baccalaureate graduates) took part in an anatomy laboratory session (N = 223). Participants' learning experiences, emotional experiences, and satisfaction with the anatomy laboratory session were assessed by their responses to closed-ended questionnaires. Participants' reasons for participation and suggestions for improvement were examined by open-ended questions. A mixed methods analysis of the data revealed a high level of satisfaction with the anatomy laboratory experience. Positive attitudes and learning experiences correlated with a sense of identification with the nursing profession. Satisfaction was positively associated with a perceived quality of learning and negatively associated with a negative emotional experience. Curiosity and self-challenge, as well as the quest for tangible, in-depth learning, were major motivators involved in the students' desire to participate in the session. Both qualitative and quantitative analyses indicated that the educational experience was significant. Therefore, it is recommended to integrate anatomy laboratory sessions into anatomy courses for nursing students. This will help to illustrate and assimilate classroom material and strengthen nursing students' sense of identification with their profession.

An Assessment of Essential Anatomy Course Content in an Entry-Level Doctor of Physical Therapy Program

Anatomical knowledge is the foundation of the educational curricula in most healthcare programs. The varying scopes of practice between healthcare professions require anatomy educators to determine what content is essential to cover in a finite time with learners. When possible, the anatomy educator bases this decision on clinical experiences; this is a more significant challenge for the non-clinician educator teaching in a health profession curriculum. Although studies have determined essential anatomy content in many healthcare professions, no study has been undertaken in physical therapist education. This study was designed to determine what anatomical concepts are considered essential in physical therapist education in one doctor of physical therapy program. Faculty (n = 28), recent graduates (n = 134), and clinical instructors (n = 247) of a doctor of physical therapy program were invited to respond to a survey focused on rating the essential nature of 46 learning objectives. Consensus for learning objectives was determined using Lawshe's content validity method. One hundred forty-seven respondents completed the survey (36% response rate). Respondents represented a diversity in years of experience, highest physical therapist degree earned, specialty training, and setting of physical therapist practice. Of the 46 learning objectives presented, 10 were most frequently rated essential, 20 as useful but not essential, and 16 as not necessary. These results offer guidance for anatomy instructors at other institutions to make an informed decision on what anatomical content to focus on in their anatomy courses in order to increase time dedicated toward mastery of essential core anatomical knowledge for physical therapist practice.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40670-022-01574-1.

Benefits of a bilingual web-based anatomy atlas for nursing students in learning anatomy

BACKGROUND

Registered nurses are required for high-quality healthcare. Thus, the anatomy course is essential regarding professional knowledge of the human body during the nursing training process. However, previous studies have indicated that anatomy teaching time and anatomy teachers were reduced and insufficient. Therefore, to improve the learning of practical anatomy in response to these difficulties, a bilingual National Taiwan University web-based anatomy atlas (NTU-WAA) was created as a cross-platform application and its feasibility was evaluated.

METHODS

The comparison of anatomy examination scores between nursing students of two cohorts (66 from the 2018-2019 cohort, whom was without NTU-WAA application; 54 from the 2019-2020 cohort, to whom NTU-WAA was offered) and the evaluation of questionnaires collected from nursing students of the 2019-2020 cohort and 4 anatomy teachers were carried out to define the feasibility of this strategy.

RESULTS

Results obtained by nursing students for the 2019-2020 cohort showed a significant increase in anatomy learning performance compared with that of the 2018-2019 cohort with reference to the laboratory midterm [2018-2019 cohort vs. 2019-2020 cohort, mean (standard deviation, SD): 77.20 (16.14) vs. 81.80 (12.03); p = 0.043], the laboratory final examination [59.68 (15.28) vs. 80.35 (13.74); p < 0.001] and the theory final examination [80.85 (10.10) vs. 84.33 (6.925); p = 0.017]. Moreover, results of the questionnaires indicated that the new bilingual cross-platform atlas was highly accepted by students and teachers.

CONCLUSIONS

The NTU-WAA, a bilingual web-based atlas, was evaluated as a beneficial anatomy-learning tool that may enhance self-study of nursing students with consequent amelioration of their anatomy-related performance in both theoretical and laboratory examinations. This reflection suggests the future implementation of the bilingual web-based atlas on a large scale.

Learning goals and content for wound care education in Finnish nursing education - A Delphi study

BACKGROUND

Caring for patients with wounds requires diverse competences from nursing professionals. However, wound care education in undergraduate nursing education is often fragmented and lacks consistent learning goals and content.

OBJECTIVES

To create learning goals and content for wound care education in Bachelor's level nursing education in Finland and to assess the consensus relating to these learning goals and content among wound care experts.

DESIGN

A consensus-building approach using the Delphi technique.

SETTINGS

A Delphi panel of wound care experts built on an online platform.

PARTICIPANTS

The participants of the Delphi panel were registered nurses, authorised wound care nurses, nurse educators and physicians.

METHODS

Learning goals and content for wound care education which had been formulated on the basis of previous focus-group interviews were presented to the Delphi panel. The data were collected in 2021 with two online Delphi rounds: 51 panellists participated in the first round and 36 in the second round. The data were analysed using statistical and qualitative analysis.

RESULTS

Learning goals and content were divided into four competence areas: 1) Anatomy and physiology, 2) Care of chronic and acute wounds, 3) Wound management and care of a patient with a wound, 4) Values and attitudes. These competence areas comprised 26 learning goals and 29 pieces of content. The consensus between the panellists was high, at >90% in all competence areas.

CONCLUSIONS

The basis of registered nurses' wound care competence is built during their undergraduate nursing studies. The results of this study can be used to standardise wound care education by implementing consistent learning goals and content in Bachelor's level nursing education.

What Use is Anatomy in First Opinion Small Animal Veterinary Practice? A Qualitative Study

Despite the uncontested importance of anatomy as one of the foundational aspects of undergraduate veterinary programs, there is still limited information available as to what anatomy knowledge is most important for the graduate veterinarian in their daily clinical work. The aim of this study was therefore to gain a deeper understanding of the role that anatomy plays in first opinion small animal veterinary practice. Using ethnographic methodologies, the authors aimed to collect rich qualitative data to answer the question "How do first opinion veterinarians use anatomy knowledge in their day-to-day clinical practice?" Detailed observations and semi-structured interviews were conducted with five veterinarians working within a single small animal first opinion practice in the United Kingdom. Thematic analysis was undertaken, identifying five main themes: Importance; Uncertainty; Continuous learning; Comparative and dynamic anatomy; and Communication and language. Anatomy was found to be interwoven within all aspects of clinical practice; however, veterinarians were uncertain in their anatomy knowledge. This impacted their confidence and how they carried out their work. Veterinarians described continually learning and refreshing their anatomy knowledge in order to effectively undertake their role, highlighting the importance of teaching information literacy skills within anatomy curricula. An interrelationship between anatomy use, psychomotor, and professional skills was also highlighted. Based on these findings, recommendations were made for veterinary anatomy curriculum development. This study provides an in-depth view within a single site small animal general practice setting: further work is required to assess the transferability of these findings to other areas of veterinary practice.

Call for Consistency: the Need to Establish Gross Anatomy Learning Objectives for the Entry-Level Physical Therapist

A need currently exists for the establishment of anatomy learning objectives for physical therapist education programs. Developing recommended anatomy objectives to serve as a curricular guide may foster more consistent student outcomes while preserving instructional autonomy. These objectives could serve as a vital resource when making decisions during curricular reform or prioritizing and emphasizing the curriculum's anatomic content. We advocate for collaboration amongst anatomy faculty and clinicians to create specific and measurable anatomy learning objectives for the entry-level physical therapist. It is essential that the objectives be peer-reviewed and that they reflect a global consensus.

A core syllabus for histology within the medical curriculum-The cell and basic tissues

The International Federation of Associations of Anatomists (IFAA) are developing core syllabuses for the anatomical sciences by means of Delphi panels. In this article, we provide the core subject matter for the teaching of the cell and of basic tissues within a medical histology course. The goal is to set an international standard providing guidelines for such a core syllabus. The Delphi panel, composed of members across multiple countries, required two rounds to evaluate 257 relevant items/topics approved by the IFAA. Based on the perception of the core knowledge of histology, the items were to be rated by each member of the Delphi panel as being "Essential," "Important," "Acceptable," or "Not required." Topics that were rated by over 60% of the panelists as being "Essential" and "Important" are provided in this article and are recommended for the teaching of medical histology.

COVID-19 and anatomy: Stimulus and initial response

The outbreak of COVID-19, resulting from widespread transmission of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, represents one of the foremost current challenges to societies across the globe, with few areas of life remaining untouched. Here, we detail the immediate impact that COVID-19 has had on the teaching and practice of anatomy, providing specific examples of the varied responses from several UK, Irish and German universities and medical schools. Alongside significant issues for, and suspension of, body donation programmes, the widespread closure of university campuses has led to challenges in delivering anatomy education via online methods, a particular problem for a practical, experience-based subject such as anatomy. We discuss the short-term consequences of COVID-19 for body donation programmes and anatomical education, and highlight issues and challenges that will need to be addressed in the medium to long term in order to restore anatomy education and practice throughout the world.

Designing and developing core physiology learning outcomes for pre-registration nursing education curriculum

Physiology is a key element of "bioscience" education within pre-registration nursing programs, but there is a lack of clarity on what is included. Physiology and bioscience content and delivery are highly varied across both higher education institutions and the related programs in the United Kingdom (UK). Despite evidence highlighting concerns over nurses' lack of bioscience knowledge and unsafe practice, there is no universally agreed on curriculum with detailed outcomes of minimum levels of knowledge to support nurses in practice and patient care. This study aimed to inform the construction of discipline-specific physiology learning outcomes to clarify relevant physiological topics required in pre-registration nursing. Initially, 360 learning outcomes were identified from various sources. Using a modified Delphi approach, an expert panel from the Bioscience in Nurse Education group reviewed and modified the list to 195 proposed outcomes. These were circulated to universities in the UK who teach nursing (n = 65). Outcomes that had 80% consensus were automatically included in the next round, with others recommended with modification (response rate 22%). The panel reviewed the modifications, and 182 outcomes were circulated in the second questionnaire (response rate 23%), and further panel review resulting in 177 outcomes agreed. These learning outcomes do not suggest how they should be delivered, but gives the basic level required for qualification as a nurse commensurate with the Nursing and Midwifery Council new standards for the "future nurse."

Evaluation of Effectiveness of Digital Technologies During Anatomy Learning in Nursing School

The disciplines of biosciences included in the curricula of a nursing degree represent a daunting but crucial type of knowledge that a well-prepared nurse should acquire. Given the importance and the objective difficulties of these courses, nursing students experience anxiety, especially for the anatomy course. This anxiety and the related rate of exam failures lead professors to analyze their teaching approach, by diversifying the lecturing methods. The aim of our study was to test the use of a virtual dissection table (DT) during the anatomy lectures of a nursing course, evaluating the anxiety level before the exam and evaluating the exam score. The feedback of the evaluated student population was positive overall. The integration of the DT in anatomy lectures improved the learning performance and mostly enhanced the self-confidence of the first year nursing students.

Second-Year Nursing Students' Retention of Gross Anatomical Knowledge

Human anatomy is a foundational course in nursing education, however, there is growing concern that students do not retain enough anatomical knowledge to successfully apply it in clinical settings. The aim of this study was to determine retention level of anatomy knowledge among second-year nursing students from their first-year anatomy class, and to determine if there is a difference in level of retention based on organ system. For each system, second-year students were asked to answer 9 to 11 multiple-choice questions (MCQs), and the scores from these quizzes were compared to matched test items from their first-year anatomy examinations. There was a significant decrease in the overall mean score from 83.05 ± 8.34 (±SD) in first year to 54.36 ±12.9 in second year (P = 0.0001). Retention levels were system specific. System-specific knowledge retention was highest for the gastrointestinal system (89.7%), respiratory system (88.5%), and genitourinary system (83.6%). This was followed by the integumentary system (80.1%), special senses (79.4%), nervous system (74.9%), and musculoskeletal system (69.3%). Retention was lowest for the lymphatic system (64.3%), cranial nerves (58.8%), vascular system (53.9%), and head and neck (42.6%). The present study shows that nursing students' anatomy knowledge retention was comparatively higher than rates reported by others in medical and allied-health students. The researchers are now investigating knowledge retention in third- and fourth-year nursing students. Further investigation into why retention is higher for specific systems and intervention strategies to improve knowledge acquisition and retention in nursing students is recommended.

The Anatomical Society's Core Anatomy Syllabus for Dental Undergraduates

The Anatomical Society has developed a series of learning outcomes in consultation with dentists, dental educators and anatomists delivering anatomical content to undergraduate dental students. A modified Delphi methodology was adopted to select experts within the field that would recommend core anatomical content in undergraduate dental programmes throughout the UK. Utilising the extensive learning outcomes from two UK Dental Schools, and neuroanatomy learning outcomes that remained outside the Anatomical Society's Core Gross Anatomy Syllabus for Medical Students, a modified Delphi technique was utilised to develop dental anatomical learning outcomes relevant to dental graduates. The Delphi panel consisted of 62 individuals (n = 62) from a wide pool of educators associated with the majority of undergraduate dental schools in the UK, representing a broad spectrum of UK Higher Education Institutions. The output from this study was 147 anatomical learning outcomes deemed to be applicable to all dental undergraduate programmes in the UK. The new recommended core anatomy syllabus for dental undergraduates, grouped into body regions, offers a comprehensive anatomical framework with which to scaffold clinical practice. The syllabus, presented as a set of learning outcomes, may be used in a variety of pedagogic situations, including where anatomy teaching exists within an integrated dental curriculum (both horizontally in the basic sciences part of the curriculum and vertically within the clinical years).

Anatomical Sciences in Chiropractic Education: A Survey of Chiropractic Programs in Australia

Human anatomy knowledge is a core requirement for all health care clinicians. There is a paucity of information relating to anatomy content and delivery in Australian chiropractic programs. The aim of this study was to describe anatomy teaching in Australian chiropractic programs, utilizing a survey which was distributed to all four programs, requesting information on: anatomy program structure, delivery methods, assessment, teaching resources, and academic staff profile at their institution. The survey was undertaken in 2016 and documented practices in that academic year. All four institutions responded. There was a reported difference in the teaching hours, content, delivery and assessment of anatomy utilized in Australian chiropractic programs. Anatomy was compulsory at all four institutions with the mean total of 214 (SD ± 100.2) teaching hours. Teaching was undertaken by permanent ongoing (30%) and sessional academic staff, and student to teacher ratio varied from 15:1 to 12:1. A variety of teaching resources were utilized, including human tissue access, either as prosected cadavers or plastinated body parts. The results of this survey confirm that anatomy has an established place in chiropractic education programs in Australia and while curricular variations exist, all programs had similar course design, delivery, and assessment methods. This study confirmed the provision of a strong foundation in topographical anatomy and neuroanatomy, while other anatomical sciences, such as histology and embryology were not consistently delivered. Formalization of a core anatomy curriculum together with competency standards is needed to assist program evaluation and development, and for accreditation purposes.

A core syllabus for the teaching of gross anatomy of the thorax to medical students

Discussion is ongoing concerning the need to ensure the clinical relevance of the biomedical sciences. However, clinical relevance within health care courses presupposes that there is internationally agreed core material to be taught and learned. For anatomy, by the initial use of Delphi Panels that comprise anatomists, scientists, and clinicians, the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists (IFAAs) is developing internationally accepted core syllabuses for all anatomical sciences disciplines in the health care professions. In this article, the deliberations of a Delphi Panel for the teaching of thoracic anatomy in the medical curriculum are presented, prior to their publication on the IFAA's website. To develop the syllabus further, it is required that anatomical societies, as well as individual anatomists and clinicians, comment upon, elaborate, and amend this draft recommended syllabus. The aim is to set internationally recognized standards and thus to provide guidelines concerning the knowledge of the human thorax expected of graduating medical professionals. Such information should be borne in mind by those involved in the development of medical courses. Clin. Anat. 33:300-315, 2020. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Nursing Students' Perceptions of a Silent Mentor Program in an Anatomy Course

Anatomy is a core course in undergraduate nursing curriculum. In today's nursing profession, the integration of biosciences and humanities is increasingly emphasized. Anatomy is considered one of the most essential bioscience subjects for nursing practice. Thus, integrating a silent mentor program into the anatomy course can enrich the knowledge of undergraduate nursing students regarding biosciences and humanities and enhance their future patient-centered care competencies. This article aimed to understand the students' perceptions of integrating a silent mentor program into the anatomy course. Qualitative approach included four focus group interviews. Themes were developed using the analytic induction technique. Twenty-five second-year undergraduate nursing students from a university were recruited. Semi-structured interviews were used to guide four focus group interviews. Focus group interviews were digitally recorded, transcribed, and analyzed. According to the preliminary findings, nursing students regarded silent mentors not only as teaching tools but also as tools to learn more than anatomy. Students greatly respected the silent mentors and were highly engaged in the anatomy course. They expected to become better students or future nurses. Four themes were identified from the interviews: emotional transformation, caring spirit, course engagement, and self-expectation. The findings suggest that the silent mentor program offered students a beneficial learning experience and stimulated their developing competency in nursing humanities. How the silent mentor program can help students achieve optimum academic performance and how their positive experience of the program and humanistic spirit translates into clinical practice in future should be studied further.

The anatomical society core embryology syllabus for undergraduate medicine

A modified Delphi methodology was used to develop a consensus regarding a series of learning outcome statements to act as the foundation of an undergraduate medical core embryology syllabus. A Delphi panel was formed by recruiting stakeholders with experience in leading undergraduate teaching of medical students. The panel (n = 18), including anatomists, embryologists and practising clinicians, were nominated by members of Council and/or the Education Committee of the Anatomical Society. Following development of an a priori set of learning outcome statements (n = 62) by the authors, panel members were asked in the first of a two-stage process to 'accept', 'reject' or 'modify' each learning outcome, to propose additional outcomes if desired. In the second stage, the panel was asked to either accept or reject 16 statements which had either been modified, or had failed to reach consensus, during the first Delphi round. Overall, 61 of 62 learning outcome statements, each linked to examples of clinical conditions to provide context, achieved an 80% level of agreement following the modified Delphi process and were therefore deemed accepted for inclusion within the syllabus. The proposed syllabus allows for flexibility within individual curricula, while still prioritising and focusing on the core level of knowledge of embryological processes by presenting the essential elements to all newly qualified doctors, regardless of their subsequent chosen specialty.

The Initial Impact of the Anatomical Society Gross Anatomy Core Syllabus for Medicine in the United Kingdom: Student and Teacher Perspectives

"What do students studying medicine need to know" is an important question for curriculum planners, anatomy educators and students. The Core Regional Anatomy Syllabus (CRAS), published by the Anatomical Society in 2016, contains 156 learning outcomes (LOs) and has informed "what needs to be known." This project explored how CRAS had impacted undergraduate anatomy and anatomists in the United Kingdom. A cross-sectional study was designed in two phases. Phase 1, involved a survey of students in clinical years (N = 164). Phase 2 included a survey of anatomist's views (n = 50) and focus groups of anatomy educators (N = 16). The students' perspective showed that specific regions of CRAS are deemed less relevant. These were also the body areas where students perceived their anatomical knowledge to be more deficient. Only 46% (n = 75) of students estimated that they knew over 50% (n = 78) of the LOs. Phase two revealed that all anatomists were aware of the syllabus and 48% (n = 24) had checked the CRAS against their own institutional LOs. Anatomists had shared CRAS with colleagues 64% (n = 32) and students at 34% (n = 17), respectively. Forty-six percent (n = 23) of anatomists reported having changed their teaching in some way because of CRAS. The focus groups generated four key themes: "support for CRAS," "standardization and validation," "professional identity," and "limitations and leverage." Overall CRAS has been well received and is establishing itself within the anatomical community as the new standard for anatomy teaching for medical students.

A Quantitative Analysis of Four Undergraduate Human Anatomy Laboratory Curricula: Approaches, Identified Structures, Concepts, and Thematic Emphases

Human anatomy is a foundational course thatserves diverse pre-professional health care majors. However, limited information is available on the teaching approaches, content, and thematic emphases of this course at the undergraduate level when compared with that of medical and other graduate schools. Herein, we document and quantitatively evaluate the laboratory curriculum of four undergraduate human anatomy courses in the USA. For each course, we assess the total number of structures (terms requiring identification during an exam), concepts (terms requiring an explanation), and clinical applications. To facilitate further assessments, we also compare the content distribution of each course with that recommended by the American Association of Clinical Anatomists (AACA). Two courses followed a regional approach emphasizing the use of human cadavers, while the other two followed a system-based approach and used plastic models and non-human cadaveric materials (e.g., cats and sheep). The total amount of information presented to students differed significantly among curricula. The majority of terms (65-88%) taught to students referred to the identification of anatomical structures whereas clinical applications were rare (< 1.3%). Courses using a regional approach expected students to learn as much as twice the number of terms than those following a system-based approach. Functions, innervations, origins, and insertions of muscles are only included in the curriculum of the courses following a regional approach. The proportion of terms devoted to each anatomical module in all curricula was significantly different from each other, as well as from that of AACA recommendation. We discuss these differences in the curriculum, the challenges and limitations inherent with each teaching approach, as well as in the teaching materials used among the curricula. These quantitative analyses aim to provide insightful information about the structure of the undergraduate human anatomy laboratory curriculum and may prove useful when redesigning a course.

The Anatomical Society core anatomy syllabus for pharmacists: outcomes to create a foundation for practice

The Anatomical Society has developed a series of learning outcomes that 'experts' within the field would recommend as core knowledge outputs for a Master's Degree Programme in Pharmacy (MPharm) within the UK. Using the Anatomical Society core gross anatomy syllabus for medical anatomy as a foundation, a modified Delphi technique was used to develop outcomes specific to pharmacy graduates. A Delphi panel consisting of medical practitioners, pharmacists and anatomists (n = 39) was created and involved 'experts' representing 20 UK Higher Education Institutions. The output from this study was 49 pharmacy-specific learning outcomes that are applicable to all pharmacy programmes. The new MPharm anatomy syllabus offers a basic anatomical framework upon which pharmacy educators can build the necessary clinical practice and knowledge. These learning outcomes could be used to develop anatomy teaching within an integrated curriculum as per requirements of the General Pharmaceutical Council (GPhC).