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Ren W, Wang Y, Yan Z, Chu Z, Yang F, Jan YK, Yao J, Pu F. Adaptive Changes in Longitudinal Arch During Long-distance Running. Int J Sports Med 2024. [PMID: 39084326 DOI: 10.1055/a-2362-1267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/02/2024]
Abstract
This study investigates the biomechanical adaptations of the longitudinal arch (LA) in long-distance runners, focusing on changes in stiffness, angle, and moment during a 60-minute run. Twenty runners participated in this experiment, and were asked to run at a speed of 2.7 m·s-1 for 60 minutes. The kinematic and kinetic data collected at five-minute intervals during running were calculated, including the stiffness of LA in the loading phase (k load ) and the stiffness of LA in the unloading phase (k unload ), the maximum LA moment (M max ), the range of LA angle change (∆θ range ), and the maximum LA angle change (∆θ max ). Foot morphology was also scanned before and after running. Variations of kinematic and kinetic data were analyzed throughout the running activity, as well as variations of foot morphology pre- and post-run. Results showed that there was a significant decrease in k load (p<0.001), coupled with increases in ∆θ range (p=0.002) and ∆θ max (p<0.001), during the first 15 minutes of running, which was followed by a period of mechanical stability. No differences were found in k unload and M max throughout the running process and the foot morphology remained unchanged after running. These results highlight a critical adaptation phase that may be pivotal for improving running economy and performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiyan Ren
- School of Engineering Medicine, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Yan Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
| | - Zhaoqi Yan
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Zhaowei Chu
- Li Ning Sports Science Research Center, Li Ning Co Ltd, Beijing, China
| | - Fan Yang
- Li Ning Sports Science Research Center, Li Ning Co Ltd, Beijing, China
| | - Yih-Kuen Jan
- Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, United States
| | - Jie Yao
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Centre for Biomedical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Fang Pu
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Centre for Biomedical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
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2
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Matsumoto Y, Ogihara N. Direct visualization and measurement of the plantar aponeurosis behavior in foot arch deformation via the windlass mechanism. Clin Anat 2024. [PMID: 38642017 DOI: 10.1002/ca.24171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2024] [Revised: 03/28/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/22/2024]
Abstract
The plantar aponeurosis (PA) is an elastic longitudinal band that contributes to the generation of a propulsive force in the push-off phase during walking and running through the windlass mechanism. However, the dynamic behavior of the PA remains unclear owing to the lack of direct measurement of the strain it generates. Therefore, this study aimed to visualize and quantify the PA behavior during two distinct foot postures: (i) neutral posture and (ii) windlass posture with midtarsal joint plantarflexion and metatarsophalangeal joint dorsiflexion, using computed tomography scans. Six healthy adult males participated in the experiment, and three-dimensional reconstruction of the PA was conducted to calculate its path length, width, thickness, and cross-sectional area. This study successfully visualized and quantified the morphological changes in the PA induced by the windlass mechanism, providing a precise reference for biomechanical modeling. This study also highlighted the interindividual variability in the PA morphology and stretching patterns. Although the windlass posture was not identical to that observed in the push-off phase during walking, the observed PA behavior provides valuable insights into its mechanics and potential implications for foot disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuka Matsumoto
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
- Graduate Course of Health and Social Services, Graduate School of Saitama Prefectural University, Saitama, Japan
| | - Naomichi Ogihara
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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3
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Mizuno D, Otsuka S, Shan X, Umemoto K, Naito M. Variation in the origin of the plantar aponeurosis and its relationship to the origin of the abductor hallucis muscle. Clin Anat 2024. [PMID: 38581285 DOI: 10.1002/ca.24164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2023] [Revised: 01/21/2024] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/08/2024]
Abstract
The plantar aponeurosis comprises medial, central, and lateral bands, which arise from the calcaneal tuberosity. Descriptions of the origin of the abductor hallucis vary among different textbooks. The central band and abductor hallucis muscles are related to the windlass mechanism. Given the uncertainties regarding the details of the origins of the central band and the abductor hallucis muscle, we examined those origins in 100 feet of 50 cadavers (25 males and 25 females) by dissection. There were three central band patterns, depending on the attachment sites of the origins of the central and lateral bands: Pattern Ia, the central band covers the lateral band completely; Pattern Ib, the central band covers part of the lateral band; Pattern II, the lateral band covers part of the central band. The origin of the abductor hallucis muscle was confirmed. It showed two types of variation: attachment type, originating from the central band; non-attachment type, not originating from the central band. Central band Patterns Ia, Ib, and II were found in 23 feet (17 males, 6 females), 24 feet (25 males, 28 females), and 24 feet (eight males, 16 females), respectively. Pattern Ia predominated in males and Pattern II in females. The attachment and non-attachment types of abductor hallucis muscle were observed in 28 feet (28%) and 72 feet (72%), respectively. The attachment type with Patterns Ia, Ib, and II was shown in 17 feet, 10 feet, and one foot, respectively. Thus, we revealed variation and sex differences in the central band, which could affect foot morphology and the efficacy of the windlass mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Mizuno
- Department of Anatomy, Aichi Medical University School of Medicine, Nagakute, Japan
| | - Shun Otsuka
- Department of Anatomy, Aichi Medical University School of Medicine, Nagakute, Japan
| | - Xiyao Shan
- Department of Anatomy, Aichi Medical University School of Medicine, Nagakute, Japan
| | - Kanae Umemoto
- Department of Anatomy, Aichi Medical University School of Medicine, Nagakute, Japan
| | - Munekazu Naito
- Department of Anatomy, Aichi Medical University School of Medicine, Nagakute, Japan
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4
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Welte L, Holowka NB, Kelly LA, Arndt A, Rainbow MJ. Mobility of the human foot's medial arch helps enable upright bipedal locomotion. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2023; 11:1155439. [PMID: 37324435 PMCID: PMC10264861 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1155439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Developing the ability to habitually walk and run upright on two feet is one of the most significant transformations to have occurred in human evolution. Many musculoskeletal adaptations enabled bipedal locomotion, including dramatic structural changes to the foot and, in particular, the evolution of an elevated medial arch. The foot's arched structure has previously been assumed to play a central role in directly propelling the center of mass forward and upward through leverage about the toes and a spring-like energy recoil. However, it is unclear whether or how the plantarflexion mobility and height of the medial arch support its propulsive lever function. We use high-speed biplanar x-ray measurements of foot bone motion on seven participants while walking and running and compare their motion to a subject-specific model without arch recoil. We show that regardless of intraspecific differences in medial arch height, arch recoil enables a longer contact time and favorable propulsive conditions at the ankle for walking upright on an extended leg. The generally overlooked navicular-medial cuneiform joint is primarily responsible for arch recoil in human arches. The mechanism through which arch recoil enables an upright ankle posture may have helped drive the evolution of the longitudinal arch after our last common ancestor with chimpanzees, who lack arch plantarflexion mobility during push-off. Future morphological investigations of the navicular-medial cuneiform joint will likely provide new interpretations of the fossil record. Our work further suggests that enabling medial arch recoil in footwear and surgical interventions may be critical for maintaining the ankle's natural propulsive ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Welte
- Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Nicholas B Holowka
- Department of Anthropology, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, United States
| | - Luke A Kelly
- School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Anton Arndt
- The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences (GIH), Stockholm, Sweden
- Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Michael J Rainbow
- Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
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5
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Sakuraya T, Sekiya SI, Emura K, Sonomura T, Hirasaki E, Arakawa T. Comparison of the soleus and plantaris muscles in humans and other primates: Macroscopic neuromuscular anatomy and evolutionary significance. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2023; 306:386-400. [PMID: 35655371 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Revised: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
In humans, the soleus is more developed compared to other primates and has a unique architecture composed of anterior bipennate and posterior unipennate parts, which are innervated by different nerve branches. The anterior part of the human soleus was proposed to be important for bipedalism, however, the phylogenetic process resulting in its acquisition remains unclear. Providing insights into this process, the anterior part of the soleus was suggested to be closely related to the plantaris based on the branching pattern of their nerve fascicles. To reveal the phylogeny of the soleus and plantaris in primates, the innervation patterns of the posterior crural muscles were compared among a wide range of species. From their branching pattern, posterior crural muscles could be classified into superficial and deep muscle groups. The anterior part of the soleus and plantaris both belonged to the deep muscle group. In all the examined specimens of ring-tailed lemurs and chimpanzees, as well as in one out of two specimens of siamang, the nerve branches corresponding to those innervating the anterior part of the human soleus were found. The muscular branches innervating the anterior part of the soleus and plantaris formed a common trunk or were connected in all the specimens. These results indicate that the anterior part of the soleus is closely related to the plantaris across different species of primates. In turn, this suggests that the anterior part of the soleus is maintained among primates, and especially in humans, where it develops as the characteristic bipennate structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tohma Sakuraya
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, Kobe University Graduate School of Health Sciences, Kobe, Japan.,Department of Anatomy, Division of Oral Structure, Function and Development, Asahi University School of Dentistry, Mizuho, Gifu, Japan
| | - Shin-Ichi Sekiya
- Faculty of Nursing, Niigata College of Nursing, Joetsu, Japan.,Department of Zoology, National Museum of Nature and Science, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Kenji Emura
- Faculty of Health Care Sciences, Himeji Dokkyo University, Himeji, Japan
| | - Takahiro Sonomura
- Department of Anatomy, Division of Oral Structure, Function and Development, Asahi University School of Dentistry, Mizuho, Gifu, Japan
| | - Eishi Hirasaki
- Section of Evolutionary Morphology, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi, Japan
| | - Takamitsu Arakawa
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, Kobe University Graduate School of Health Sciences, Kobe, Japan
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6
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Nozaki S, Kinugasa R, Yaeshima K, Hashimoto T, Jinzaki M, Ogihara N. Quantification of the in vivo stiffness and natural length of the human plantar aponeurosis during quiet standing using ultrasound elastography. Sci Rep 2022; 12:15707. [PMID: 36127445 PMCID: PMC9489693 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-20211-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to identify the stiffness and natural length of the human plantar aponeurosis (PA) during quiet standing using ultrasound shear wave elastography. The shear wave velocity (SWV) of the PA in young healthy males and females (10 participants each) was measured by placing a probe in a hole in the floor plate. The change in the SWV with the passive dorsiflexion of the metatarsophalangeal (MP) joint was measured. The Young's modulus of the PA was estimated to be 64.7 ± 9.4 kPa, which exponentially increased with MP joint dorsiflexion. The PA was estimated to have the natural length when the MP joint was plantarflexed by 13.8°, indicating that the PA is stretched by arch compression during standing. However, the present study demonstrated that the estimated stiffness for the natural length in quiet standing was significantly larger than that in the unloaded condition, revealing that the PA during standing is stiffened by elongation and through the possible activation of intrinsic muscles. Such quantitative information possibly contributes to the detailed biomechanical modeling of the human foot, facilitating an improved understanding of the mechanical functions and pathogenetic mechanisms of the PA during movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuhei Nozaki
- Laboratory of Human Evolutionary Biomechanics, Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan.
| | - Ryuta Kinugasa
- Department of Human Sciences, Kanagawa University, Kanagawa, 221-8686, Japan
| | - Katsutoshi Yaeshima
- Department of Human Sciences, Kanagawa University, Kanagawa, 221-8686, Japan
| | - Takeshi Hashimoto
- Sports Medicine Research Center, Keio University, Kanagawa, 223-8521, Japan
| | - Masahiro Jinzaki
- Department of Radiology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
| | - Naomichi Ogihara
- Laboratory of Human Evolutionary Biomechanics, Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan.
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7
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Matsumoto Y, Ogihara N, Hanawa H, Kokubun T, Kanemura N. Novel Multi-Segment Foot Model Incorporating Plantar Aponeurosis for Detailed Kinematic and Kinetic Analyses of the Foot With Application to Gait Studies. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:894731. [PMID: 35814002 PMCID: PMC9265906 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.894731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Kinetic multi-segment foot models have been proposed to evaluate the forces and moments generated in the foot during walking based on inverse dynamics calculations. However, these models did not consider the plantar aponeurosis (PA) despite its potential importance in generation of the ground reaction forces and storage and release of mechanical energy. This study aimed to develop a novel multi-segment foot model incorporating the PA to better elucidate foot kinetics. The foot model comprised three segments: the phalanx, forefoot, and hindfoot. The PA was modeled using five linear springs connecting the origins and the insertions via intermediate points. To demonstrate the efficacy of the foot model, an inverse dynamic analysis of human gait was performed and how the inclusion of the PA model altered the estimated joint moments was examined. Ten healthy men walked along a walkway with two force plates placed in series close together. The attempts in which the participant placed his fore- and hindfoot on the front and rear force plates, respectively, were selected for inverse dynamic analysis. The stiffness and the natural length of each PA spring remain largely uncertain. Therefore, a sensitivity analysis was conducted to evaluate how the estimated joint moments were altered by the changes in the two parameters within a range reported by previous studies. The present model incorporating the PA predicted that 13%–45% of plantarflexion in the metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joint and 8%–29% of plantarflexion in the midtarsal joints were generated by the PA at the time of push-off during walking. The midtarsal joint generated positive work, whereas the MTP joint generated negative work in the late stance phase. The positive and negative work done by the two joints decreased, indicating that the PA contributed towards transfer of the energy absorbed at the MTP joint to generate positive work at the midtarsal joint during walking. Although validation is limited due to the difficulty associated with direct measurement of the PA force in vivo, the proposed novel foot model may serve as a useful tool to clarify the function and mechanical effects of the PA and the foot during dynamic movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuka Matsumoto
- Graduate School of Saitama Prefectural University, Graduate Course of Health and Social Services, Saitama, Japan
| | - Naomichi Ogihara
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroki Hanawa
- Department of Health Science, University of Human Arts and Sciences, Saitama, Japan
| | - Takanori Kokubun
- Department of Health and Social Services, Saitama Prefectural University, Saitama, Japan
| | - Naohiko Kanemura
- Department of Health and Social Services, Saitama Prefectural University, Saitama, Japan
- *Correspondence: Naohiko Kanemura,
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8
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Ito K, Nakamura T, Suzuki R, Negishi T, Oishi M, Nagura T, Jinzaki M, Ogihara N. Comparative Functional Morphology of Human and Chimpanzee Feet Based on Three-Dimensional Finite Element Analysis. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 9:760486. [PMID: 35096789 PMCID: PMC8793834 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2021.760486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
To comparatively investigate the morphological adaptation of the human foot for achieving robust and efficient bipedal locomotion, we develop three-dimensional finite element models of the human and chimpanzee feet. Foot bones and the outer surface of the foot are extracted from computer tomography images and meshed with tetrahedral elements. The ligaments and plantar fascia are represented by tension-only spring elements. The contacts between the bones and between the foot and ground are solved using frictionless and Coulomb friction contact algorithms, respectively. Physiologically realistic loading conditions of the feet during quiet bipedal standing are simulated. Our results indicate that the center of pressure (COP) is located more anteriorly in the human foot than in the chimpanzee foot, indicating a larger stability margin in bipedal posture in humans. Furthermore, the vertical free moment generated by the coupling motion of the calcaneus and tibia during axial loading is larger in the human foot, which can facilitate the compensation of the net yaw moment of the body around the COP during bipedal locomotion. Furthermore, the human foot can store elastic energy more effectively during axial loading for the effective generation of propulsive force in the late stance phase. This computational framework for a comparative investigation of the causal relationship among the morphology, kinematics, and kinetics of the foot may provide a better understanding regarding the functional significance of the morphological features of the human foot.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kohta Ito
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, Keio University, Yokohama, Japan
- Graduate School of Human Sciences, Osaka University, Suita, Japan
| | - Tomoya Nakamura
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, Keio University, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Ryo Suzuki
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, Keio University, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Takuo Negishi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, Keio University, Yokohama, Japan
- Department of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Motoharu Oishi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, Sagamihara, Japan
| | - Takeo Nagura
- Department of Clinical Biomechanics, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masahiro Jinzaki
- Department of Radiology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Naomichi Ogihara
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, Keio University, Yokohama, Japan
- Department of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
- *Correspondence: Naomichi Ogihara,
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9
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Kim YH, Chai JW, Kim DH, Kim HJ, Seo J. A problem-based approach in musculoskeletal ultrasonography: heel pain in adults. Ultrasonography 2021; 41:34-52. [PMID: 34674456 PMCID: PMC8696136 DOI: 10.14366/usg.21069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Musculoskeletal ultrasonography (US) has unique advantages, such as excellent spatial resolution for superficial structures, the capability for dynamic imaging, and the ability for direct correlation and provocation of symptoms. For these reasons, US is increasingly used to evaluate problems in small joints, such as the foot and ankle. However, it is almost impossible to evaluate every anatomic structure within a limited time. Therefore, US examinations can be faster and more efficient if radiologists know where to look and image patients with typical symptoms. In this review, common etiologies of heel pain are discussed in a problem-based manner. Knowing the common pain sources and being familiar with their US findings will help radiologists to perform accurate and effective US examinations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Hee Kim
- Department of Radiology, SMG-SNU Boramae Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jee Won Chai
- Department of Radiology, SMG-SNU Boramae Medical Center, Seoul, Korea.,Department of Radiology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Dong Hyun Kim
- Department of Radiology, SMG-SNU Boramae Medical Center, Seoul, Korea.,Department of Radiology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Hyo Jin Kim
- Department of Radiology, SMG-SNU Boramae Medical Center, Seoul, Korea.,Department of Radiology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jiwoon Seo
- Department of Radiology, SMG-SNU Boramae Medical Center, Seoul, Korea.,Department of Radiology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
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10
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Morphological differences in the calcaneus among extant great apes investigated by three-dimensional geometric morphometrics. Sci Rep 2021; 11:20889. [PMID: 34686756 PMCID: PMC8536676 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-99942-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Investigating the morphological differences of the calcaneus in humans and great apes is crucial for reconstructing locomotor repertories of fossil hominins. However, morphological variations in the calcaneus of the great apes (chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans) have not been sufficiently studied. This study aims to clarify variations in calcaneal morphology among great apes based on three-dimensional geometric morphometrics. A total of 556 landmarks and semilandmarks were placed on the calcaneal surface to calculate the principal components of shape variations among specimens. Clear interspecific differences in calcaneal morphology were extracted, corresponding to the degree of arboreality of the three species. The most arboreal orangutans possessed comparatively more slender calcaneal tuberosity and deeper pivot region of the cuboid articular surface than chimpanzees and gorillas. However, the most terrestrial gorillas exhibited longer lever arm of the triceps surae muscle, larger peroneal trochlea, more concave plantar surface, more inverted calcaneal tuberosity, more everted cuboid articular surface, and more prominent plantar process than the orangutans and chimpanzees. These interspecific differences possibly reflect the functional adaptation of the calcaneus to locomotor behavior in great apes. Such information might be useful for inferring foot functions and reconstructing the locomotion of fossil hominoids and hominids.
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11
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Davis IS, Hollander K, Lieberman DE, Ridge ST, Sacco ICN, Wearing SC. Stepping Back to Minimal Footwear: Applications Across the Lifespan. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 2021; 49:228-243. [PMID: 34091498 DOI: 10.1249/jes.0000000000000263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Minimal footwear has existed for tens of thousands of years and was originally designed to protect the sole of the foot. Over the past 50 yr, most footwear has become increasingly more cushioned and supportive. Here, we review evidence that minimal shoes are a better match to our feet, which may result in a lower risk of musculoskeletal injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene S Davis
- Spaulding National Running Center, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | | | - Daniel E Lieberman
- Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge MA
| | - Sarah T Ridge
- Department of Exercise Sciences, Brigham Young University, Salt Lake City, Utah
| | - Isabel C N Sacco
- Physical Therapy, Speech and Occupational Therapy, School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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12
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Waśniewska A, Olewnik Ł, Diogo R, Polguj M. Morphological variability of the plantaris muscle origin in human fetuses. Ann Anat 2021; 239:151794. [PMID: 34217832 DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2021.151794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Revised: 06/10/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The plantaris muscle (PM) is a small, fusiform muscle located between the gastrocnemius muscle (GM) and soleus muscle (SM). PM supports movements of the knee and ankle. This muscle presents a great variability, and also has a high clinical significance. Nevertheless, data concerns morphology and morphometry of the origin of PM in human fetuses are scarce. MATERIAL AND METHODS Forty-seven spontaneously-aborted human fetuses (23 male, 24 female) aged 18-38 weeks of gestation were examined. The morphology and morphometry of the origin of PM were evaluated. RESULTS PM was present in 74 lower limbs (78.7%), and absent on 20 limbs (21.3%). We distinguished VI types of the proximal attachment of PM. Belly width and thickness, as well as thickness of the tendon and MT junction differed significantly between types of PM origin. CONCLUSIONS We distinguished six (I-VI) types of origin of PM in human fetuses. The most common type was type Ia, characterized by an attachment to the lateral head of GM, lateral femoral condyle and to the knee joint capsule. Our results of PM anatomical variation in fetuses will pave the way for detailed comparisons with studies carried out on adult cadavers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Waśniewska
- Department of Normal and Clinical Anatomy, Chair of Anatomy and Histology, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland.
| | - Łukasz Olewnik
- Department of Anatomical Dissection and Donation, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
| | - Rui Diogo
- Department of Anatomy, Howard University College of Medicine, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Michał Polguj
- Department of Normal and Clinical Anatomy, Chair of Anatomy and Histology, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
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13
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Sichting F, Ebrecht F. The rise of the longitudinal arch when sitting, standing, and walking: Contributions of the windlass mechanism. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0249965. [PMID: 33831112 PMCID: PMC8031382 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0249965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 03/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The original windlass mechanism describes a one-to-one coupling between metatarsal joint dorsiflexion and medial longitudinal arch rise. The description assumes a sufficiently stiff plantar aponeurosis and absence of foot muscle activity. However, recent research calls for a broader interpretation of the windlass mechanism that accounts for an extensible plantar aponeurosis and active foot muscles. In this study, we investigate the rise of the arch in response to toe dorsiflexion when sitting, standing, and walking to discuss the windlass mechanism’s contributions in static and dynamic load scenarios. 3D motion analysis allowed a kinematic investigation of the rise and drop of the arch relative to the extent of toe dorsiflexion. The results suggest that static windlass effects poorly predict the relationship between arch dynamics and metatarsophalangeal joint motion during dynamic load scenarios, such as walking. We were able to show that toe dorsiflexion resulted in an immediate rise of the longitudinal arch during sitting and standing. In contrast, a decrease in arch height was observed during walking, despite toe dorsiflexion at the beginning of the push-off phase. Further, the longitudinal arch rose almost linearly with toe dorsiflexion in the static loading scenarios, while the dynamic load scenario revealed an exponential rise of the arch. In addition to that, the rate of change in arch height relative to toe motion was significantly lower when sitting and standing compared to walking. Finally, and most surprisingly, arch rise was found to correlate with toe dorsiflexion only in the dynamic loading scenario. These results challenge the traditional perspective of the windlass mechanism as the dominating source of foot rigidity for push-off against the ground during bipedal walking. It seems plausible that other mechanisms besides the windlass act to raise the foot arch.
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Affiliation(s)
- Freddy Sichting
- Department of Human Locomotion, Chemnitz University of Technology, Chemnitz, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Florian Ebrecht
- Department of Human Locomotion, Chemnitz University of Technology, Chemnitz, Germany
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14
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Welte L, Kelly LA, Kessler SE, Lieberman DE, D'Andrea SE, Lichtwark GA, Rainbow MJ. The extensibility of the plantar fascia influences the windlass mechanism during human running. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20202095. [PMID: 33468002 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.2095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The arch of the human foot is unique among hominins as it is compliant at ground contact but sufficiently stiff to enable push-off. These behaviours are partly facilitated by the ligamentous plantar fascia whose role is central to two mechanisms. The ideal windlass mechanism assumes that the plantar fascia has a nearly constant length to directly couple toe dorsiflexion with a change in arch shape. However, the plantar fascia also stretches and then shortens throughout gait as the arch-spring stores and releases elastic energy. We aimed to understand how the extensible plantar fascia could behave as an ideal windlass when it has been shown to strain throughout gait, potentially compromising the one-to-one coupling between toe arc length and arch length. We measured foot bone motion and plantar fascia elongation using high-speed X-ray during running. We discovered that toe plantarflexion delays plantar fascia stretching at foot strike, which probably modifies the distribution of the load through other arch tissues. Through a pure windlass effect in propulsion, a quasi-isometric plantar fascia's shortening is delayed to later in stance. The plantar fascia then shortens concurrently to the windlass mechanism, likely enhancing arch recoil at push-off.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Welte
- Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
| | - Luke A Kelly
- School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Sarah E Kessler
- School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.,Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Daniel E Lieberman
- Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Susan E D'Andrea
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI, USA
| | - Glen A Lichtwark
- School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Michael J Rainbow
- Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
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15
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Holowka NB, Richards A, Sibson BE, Lieberman DE. The human foot functions like a spring of adjustable stiffness during running. J Exp Biol 2021; 224:jeb219667. [PMID: 33199449 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.219667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Like other animals, humans use their legs like springs to save energy during running. One potential contributor to leg stiffness in humans is the longitudinal arch (LA) of the foot. Studies of cadaveric feet have demonstrated that the LA can function like a spring, but it is unknown whether humans can adjust LA stiffness in coordination with more proximal joints to help control leg stiffness during running. Here, we used 3D motion capture to record 27 adult participants running on a forceplate-instrumented treadmill, and calculated LA stiffness using beam bending and midfoot kinematics models of the foot. Because changing stride frequency causes humans to adjust overall leg stiffness, we had participants run at their preferred frequency and frequencies 35% above and 20% below preferred frequency to test for similar adjustments in the LA. Regardless of which foot model we used, we found that participants increased LA quasi-stiffness significantly between low and high frequency runs, mirroring changes at the ankle, knee and leg overall. However, among foot models, we found that the model incorporating triceps surae force into bending force on the foot produced unrealistically high LA work estimates, leading us to discourage this modeling approach. Additionally, we found that there was not a consistent correlation between LA height and quasi-stiffness values among the participants, indicating that static LA height measurements are not good predictors of dynamic function. Overall, our findings support the hypothesis that humans dynamically adjust LA stiffness during running in concert with other structures of the leg.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas B Holowka
- Department of Anthropology, University at Buffalo, 380 Academic Center, Buffalo, NY 14261, USA
- Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, 11 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Alexander Richards
- Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, 11 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Benjamin E Sibson
- Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, 11 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Daniel E Lieberman
- Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, 11 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
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16
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Effect of the upward curvature of toe springs on walking biomechanics in humans. Sci Rep 2020; 10:14643. [PMID: 32943665 PMCID: PMC7499201 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-71247-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Although most features of modern footwear have been intensively studied, there has been almost no research on the effects of toe springs. This nearly ubiquitous upward curvature of the sole at the front of the shoe elevates the toe box dorsally above the ground and thereby holds the toes in a constantly dorsiflexed position. While it is generally recognized that toe springs facilitate the forefoot’s ability to roll forward at the end of stance, toe springs may also have some effect on natural foot function. This study investigated the effects of toe springs on foot biomechanics in a controlled experiment in which participants walked in specially-designed sandals with varying curvature in the toe region to simulate toe springs ranging from 10 to 40 degrees of curvature. Using inverse dynamics techniques, we found that toe springs alter the joint moments and work at the toes such that greater degrees of toe spring curvature resulted in lower work requirements during walking. Our results help explain why toe springs have been a pervasive feature in shoes for centuries but also suggest that toe springs may contribute to weakening of the foot muscles and possibly to increased susceptibility to common pathological conditions such as plantar fasciitis.
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17
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Zwirner J, Zhang M, Ondruschka B, Akita K, Hammer N. An ossifying bridge - on the structural continuity between the Achilles tendon and the plantar fascia. Sci Rep 2020; 10:14523. [PMID: 32884015 PMCID: PMC7471908 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-71316-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Highly regular aligned trabeculae are found in the superficial posterior and inferior calcaneus appearing to connect the Achilles tendon (AT) to the plantar fascia (PF) in a bridge-like manner. This provides a morphological basis for the stretching-based heel pain treatment. However, the continuity of collagen fibres between the AT and the PF remains debated controversially to date. The given study morphologically investigated the AT-calcaneus-PF complex using histology and plastination. Moreover, the AT-calcaneus-PF complex was biomechanically mapped based on 13 sub-regions with a total of 76 tested samples. Regular calcaneal trabeculae were surrounded by tendon-like collagen fibre bundles and adipocytes. The orientation of calcaneal trabeculae was further closely related to the course of the PF collagen fibre bundles. The pooled biomechanical analysis revealed low elastic moduli (minimum = 4 MPa) and ultimate tensile strengths of the decalcified calcaneal samples (minimum = 0.4 MPa) and the calcaneal periostea (minimum = 2 MPa) and high respective values (elastic modulus maximum of 144 MPa; ultimate tensile strength maximum of 29 MPa) for the PF samples compared to the other sub-regions. This study provides structural evidence for a morphological connection between the AT and PF via the highly aligned calcaneal trabeculae of the posterior calcaneus. The AT-calcaneus-PF complex was biomechanically mapped to allow for an assessment of its site-dependent mechanical characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johann Zwirner
- Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand. .,Department of Clinical Anatomy, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Ming Zhang
- Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Benjamin Ondruschka
- Institute of Legal Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Keichi Akita
- Department of Clinical Anatomy, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Niels Hammer
- Department of Macroscopic and Clinical Anatomy, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria. .,Department of Orthopaedic and Trauma Surgery, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany. .,Fraunhofer IWU, Dresden, Germany.
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18
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Sichting F, Holowka NB, Ebrecht F, Lieberman DE. Evolutionary anatomy of the plantar aponeurosis in primates, including humans. J Anat 2020; 237:85-104. [PMID: 32103502 PMCID: PMC7309290 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2019] [Revised: 01/11/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The plantar aponeurosis in the human foot has been extensively studied and thoroughly described, in part, because of the incidence of plantar fasciitis in humans. It is commonly assumed that the human plantar aponeurosis is a unique adaptation to bipedalism that evolved in concert with the longitudinal arch. However, the comparative anatomy of the plantar aponeurosis is poorly known in most mammals, even among non-human primates, hindering efforts to understand its function. Here, we review previous anatomical descriptions of 40 primate species and use phylogenetic comparative methods to reconstruct the evolution of the plantar aponeurosis and its relationship to the plantaris muscle in primates. Ancestral state reconstructions suggest that the overall organization of the human plantar aponeurosis is shared with chimpanzees and that a similar anatomical configuration evolved independently in different primate clades as an adaptation to terrestrial locomotion. The presence of a plantar aponeurosis with clearly developed lateral and central bands in the African apes suggests that this structure is not prohibitive to suspensory locomotion and that these species possess versatile feet adapted for both terrestrial and arboreal locomotion. This plantar aponeurosis configuration would have been advantageous in enhancing foot stiffness for bipedal locomotion in the earliest hominins, prior to the evolution of a longitudinal arch. Hominins may have subsequently evolved thicker and stiffer plantar aponeuroses alongside the arch to enable a windlass mechanism and elastic energy storage for bipedal walking and running, although this idea requires further testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Freddy Sichting
- Department of Human LocomotionChemnitz University of TechnologyChemnitzGermany
- Department of Human Evolutionary BiologyHarvard UniversityCambridgeMAUSA
| | - Nicholas B. Holowka
- Department of Human Evolutionary BiologyHarvard UniversityCambridgeMAUSA
- Department of AnthropologyUniversity at BuffaloBuffaloNYUSA
| | - Florian Ebrecht
- Department of Human LocomotionChemnitz University of TechnologyChemnitzGermany
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