Should magnesium sulfate be administered to women with mild pre-eclampsia? A systematic review of published reports on eclampsia

Magnesium sulfate in preeclampsia: Broad indications, not only in neurological symptoms

The role of magnesium sulfate for treatment of eclampsia is well established. The medication proved to be superior to other anticonvulsants to reduce the incidence of recurrent convulsions among women with eclampsia. Additionally, magnesium sulfate has been indicated for women with preeclampsia with different severe features. However, despite these recommendations, many clinicians are still not confident with the use of magnesium sulfate, even in settings with high incidence of preeclampsia and unacceptable rates of maternal mortality. This review brings basic science and clinical information to endorse recommendations to encourage clinicians to use magnesium sulfate for patients with all severe features of preeclampsia, not only for women with neurological symptoms. Additionally, other benefits of magnesium sulfate in anesthesia and fetal neuroprotection are also presented. Finally, a comprehensive algorithm presents recommendations to manage patients with preeclampsia with severe features between 34 and 36+6 weeks.

Posterior Reversible Encephalopathy Syndrome in a Late Postpartum Patient With a Rare Complication of Subarachnoid Hemorrhage

Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES) is considered a neuroclinical syndrome of headache, confusion, visual changes, and seizures associated with neuroimaging findings of posterior cerebral white matter edema. Although the incidence of the syndrome is largely unknown, this condition is becoming increasingly recognized. The prognosis is generally good with most symptoms resolving within one week and lesions on imaging resolving in two weeks. Death and significant neurological disability have been reported but are relatively rare. In this report, we present a 10-day postpartum patient with an atypical history of headache and seizure-like activity. Neuroimaging revealed findings consistent with PRES as well as a rare complication of subarachnoid hemorrhage. This case highlights the importance of clinicians considering preeclampsia/eclampsia-induced PRES when encountering a postpartum patient with headache and hypertension to further reduce morbidity and mortality in this patient population.

Pregnancy-associated mortality due to cardiovascular disease: Impact of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy

BACKGROUND

Reported rates of maternal mortality in the United States have been staggeringly high and increasing, and cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a chief contributor to such deaths. However, the impact of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (HDP) on the short-term risk of cardiovascular death is not well understood.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the association between HDP (chronic hypertension, gestational hypertension, preeclampsia, eclampsia, and superimposed preeclampsia) and pregnancy-associated mortality rates (PMR) from all causes, CVD-related causes both at delivery and within 1 year following delivery.

METHODS

We used the Nationwide Readmissions Database (2010-2018) to examine PMRs for females 15-54 years old. International Classification of Disease 9 and 10 diagnosis codes were used to identify pregnancy-associated deaths due to HDP and CVD. Discrete-time Cox proportional hazards regression models were used to calculate adjusted hazard ratios (HR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for mortality at delivery (0 days) and at <30, <60, <90, <180, and <365 days after delivery in relation to HDP.

RESULTS

Of 33,417,736 hospital deliveries, the rate of HDP was 11.0% (n = 3,688,967), and the PMR from CVD was 6.4 per 100,000 delivery hospitalisations (n = 2141). Compared with normotensive patients, HRs for CVD-related PMRs increased with HDP severity, reaching over 58-fold for eclampsia patients. HRs were higher for stroke-related (1.2 to 170.9) than heart disease (HD)-related (0.99 to 39.8) mortality across all HDPs. Except for gestational hypertension, the increased risks of CVD mortality were evident at delivery and persisted 1 year postpartum for all HDPs.

CONCLUSIONS

HDPs are strong risk factors for pregnancy-associated mortality due to CVD at delivery and within 1 year postpartum; the risks are stronger for stroke than HD-related PMR. While absolute PMRs are low, this study supports the importance of extending postpartum care beyond the traditional 42-day postpartum visit for people whose pregnancies are complicated by hypertension.

Adherence to Practice Guidelines in the Implementation of Emergency Obstetric and Newborn Care in Referral Hospitals in Osun State, Nigeria

Introduction

While practice guidelines support clinical decision-making for optimal patient outcomes, there is often nonadherence to practice guidelines in implementing evidence-based interventions.

Objectives

This article aimed to assess adherence to practice guidelines in emergency obstetric and newborn care (EmONC) and the outcome of pregnancy in cases of obstetric complications in referral hospitals.

Method

The study employed a descriptive design. A purposive sampling technique was used to select the three tertiary hospitals and six out of nine state hospitals in Osun State. A data extraction form developed based on a fidelity framework was used to collect data on Adherence from 264 cases of obstetric complications. Descriptive statistics, such as frequency and percentage, and inferential statistics, such as chi-square, were done with the significance level set as p < .05.

Results

Findings showed low adherence to practice guidelines in 70.8% of hemorrhage care, 52.0% of fetal distress care, 60.0% of prolonged obstructed labor care, and 44.4% of preeclampsia/eclampsia care. The study's findings also showed that 64.3% of cases of prolonged/obstructed labor, 54.9% of cases of fetal distress, and 46.7% of all cases of obstetric complications were referred out at the state hospitals. Neonatal mortality in state and tertiary hospitals was 3.7% and 21.7%, respectively, which was significantly different (p < .001).

Conclusion

There was low adherence to practice guidelines for the implementation of EmONC in state and tertiary hospitals, and a significant number of cases of obstetric complications were referred out in the state hospitals. The low adherence to practice guidelines and numerous referrals truncate the successful implementation of EmONC and hinder women and newborns from receiving optimal care for obstetric complications. There is a need to develop strategies that promote adherence to practice guidelines in implementing EmONC.

Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy

Hypertensive disorders in pregnancy are a leading cause of global maternal and fetal morbidity. The four hypertensive disorders of pregnancy include chronic hypertension, gestational hypertension, preeclampsia-eclampsia, and chronic hypertension with superimposed preeclampsia. A careful history, review of systems, physical examination, and laboratory analysis can help differentiate these disorders and quantify the severity of the disease, which holds important implications for disease management. This article reviews the different types of disorders of hypertension in pregnancy and how to diagnose and manage these patients, with special attention paid to any recent changes made to this management algorithm.

Maternal magnesium sulfate administration increases early-onset hyperkalemia risk in premature infants: A propensity score-matched, case-control study

BACKGROUND

Magnesium sulfate (MgSO₄) is a common substance administered to pregnant women with preeclampsia or eclampsia to prevent and treat seizures or gestational hypertension. This study aimed to evaluate whether administering maternal magnesium sulfate increased the risk of early-onset hyperkalemia in preterm infants.

METHODS

This single-center, propensity score-matched, case-control study examined preterm infants born within 24-36 weeks of gestation using electronic medical records between January 2015 and June 2019, in the Saitama City Hospital, Japan. We categorized infants according to their maternal MgSO₄ administration status. After adjusting for perinatal information and maternal treatment, we compared the incidence of the variables, including neonatal hyperkalemia, within 24 h after birth between the matched cohorts. All infants in Model 1 were analyzed separately, while in Model 2 infants with birth weight of less than 1000 g were excluded.

RESULTS

We enrolled 421 infants (maternal MgSO4 group, 124; control group, 297). Ninety-five infants in Model 1 and 86 in Model 2 were matched in each group using propensity scores, respectively. In the matched cohorts of both models, infants in the maternal MgSO₄ group had a higher hyperkalemia incidence than did those in the control group (42.1% vs. 7.4% in Model 1, 44.2% vs. 5.8% in Model 2, respectively; p < 0.0001). However, there was no relationship between the duration of intrauterine exposure to MgSO₄ and early-onset neonatal hyperkalemia incidence.

CONCLUSION

Our study demonstrated that maternal MgSO₄ administration, even for a short period of time, may increase the risk of early-onset hyperkalemia in preterm infants. Accordingly, physicians should be cautious when administering serum potassium to infants born to mothers administered MgSO₄, especially within 24 h after birth.

Modulatory effect of two regimens of magnesium sulfate on the systemic inflammatory response in pregnant women with imminent eclampsia

OBJECTIVE

This study compared the modulatory effect of two intravenous magnesium sulfate (MgSO₄) regimens on the systemic inflammatory response in pregnant women diagnosed with imminent eclampsia.

STUDY DESIGN

In a single-blind cross-sectional study, 33 women were allocated according to the Zuspan (n = 16) and Sibai (n = 17) MgSO₄ regimens, and treated for 24 h. Blood samples were collected pre-administration of the loading dose, at 24 h of the maintenance dose of MgSO₄, and at 48 h, when patients were without treatment. Plasma was used to determine interleukin (IL)-1 beta (IL-1β), IL-6, IL-10, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), heat shock protein (Hsp70), and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) by ELISA.

RESULTS

The treatment with the Zuspan's regimen didn't change plasma concentrations of TNF-α, IL-10, and Hsp70 in the three-time points studied. However, it decreased IL-1β at 24 h and 48 h and IL-6 at 48 h, and increased HO-1 concentration at 48 h. On the other hand, compared to the pre-treatment period, Sibai's regimen induced a significant decrease in TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and Hsp70, while increased HO-1 levels both at 24 h and 48 h and, IL-10 concentration at 48 h.

CONCLUSIONS

Sibai's regimen determined an early and efficient immunoregulatory effect on systemic inflammatory response in preeclampsia, suggesting that the maintenance dose of two grams of MgSO₄ was better than one gram in the treatment of imminent eclampsia.

High risk and low prevalence diseases: Eclampsia

INTRODUCTION

Eclampsia is a rare partum and puerperal condition that carries a high rate of morbidity and mortality.

OBJECTIVE

This review highlights the pearls and pitfalls of the care of patients with eclampsia, including presentation, evaluation, and evidence-based management in the emergency department (ED).

DISCUSSION

Eclampsia is a hypertensive disease of pregnancy defined by new onset tonic-clonic, focal, or multifocal seizures or unexplained altered mental status in a pregnant or postpartum patient in the absence of other causative etiologies. However, signs and symptoms of preeclampsia and prodromes of eclampsia are often subtle and non-specific, making the diagnosis difficult. Thus, it should be considered in pregnant and postpartum patients who present to the ED. Laboratory testing including complete blood cell count, renal and liver function panels, electrolytes, glucose, coagulation panel, fibrinogen, lactate dehydrogenase, uric acid, and urinalysis, as well as imaging to include head computed tomography, can assist, but these evaluations should not delay management. Components of treatment include emergent obstetric specialist consultation, magnesium administration, and blood pressure control in patients with hypertension. Definitive treatment of eclampsia requires emergent delivery in pregnant patients. If consultants are not in-house, emergent stabilization and immediate transfer are required.

CONCLUSIONS

An understanding of eclampsia can assist emergency clinicians in rapid recognition and timely management of this potentially deadly disease.

Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy: Common Clinical Conundrums

Importance

Hypertensive complications of pregnancy comprise 16% of maternal deaths in developed countries and 7.4% of deaths in the United States. Rates of preeclampsia increased 25% from 1987 to 2004, and rates of severe preeclampsia have increased 6.7-fold between 1980 and 2003.

Objective

The aim of this study was to review current and available evidence for common clinical questions regarding the management of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy.

Evidence Acquisition

Original research articles, review articles, and guidelines on hypertension in pregnancy were reviewed.

Results

Severe gestational hypertension should be managed as preeclampsia with severe features. Serum uric acid levels can be useful in predicting development of superimposed preeclampsia for women with chronic hypertension. When presenting with preeclampsia with severe features before 34 weeks, expectant management should be considered only when both maternal and fetal conditions are stable. In the setting of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, oral antihypertensive medications should be initiated when systolic blood pressure is greater than 160 mm Hg or when diastolic blood pressure is greater than 110 mm Hg, with the most ideal agents being labetalol or nifedipine. Furthermore, although risk of preeclampsia recurrence in future pregnancy is low, women with a history of preeclampsia should be managed with 81 mg aspirin daily for preeclampsia prevention.

Conclusions and Relevance

Despite the frequency with which hypertensive disorders of pregnancy are encountered clinically, situations arise frequently with limited evidence to guide providers in their management. An urgent need exists to better understand this disease to optimize outcomes for impacted patients.

Eclampsia in the 21st century

The reported incidence of eclampsia is 1.6 to 10 per 10,000 deliveries in developed countries, whereas it is 50 to 151 per 10,000 deliveries in developing countries. In addition, low-resource countries have substantially higher rates of maternal and perinatal mortalities and morbidities. This disparity in incidence and pregnancy outcomes may be related to universal access to prenatal care, early detection of preeclampsia, timely delivery, and availability of healthcare resources in developed countries compared to developing countries. Because of its infrequency in developed countries, many obstetrical providers and maternity units have minimal to no experience in the acute management of eclampsia and its complications. Therefore, clear protocols for prevention of eclampsia in those with severe preeclampsia and acute treatment of eclamptic seizures at all levels of healthcare are required for better maternal and neonatal outcomes. Eclamptic seizure will occur in 2% of women with preeclampsia with severe features who are not receiving magnesium sulfate and in <0.6% in those receiving magnesium sulfate. The pathogenesis of an eclamptic seizure is not well understood; however, the blood-brain barrier disruption with the passage of fluid, ions, and plasma protein into the brain parenchyma remains the leading theory. New data suggest that blood-brain barrier permeability may increase by circulating factors found in preeclamptic women plasma, such as vascular endothelial growth factor and placental growth factor. The management of an eclamptic seizure will include supportive care to prevent serious maternal injury, magnesium sulfate for prevention of recurrent seizures, and promoting delivery. Although routine imagining following an eclamptic seizure is not recommended, the classic finding is referred to as the posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome. Most patients with posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome will show complete resolution of the imaging finding within 1 to 2 weeks, but routine imaging follow-up is unnecessary unless there are findings of intracranial hemorrhage, infraction, or ongoing neurologic deficit. Eclampsia is associated with increased risk of maternal mortality and morbidity, such as placental abruption, disseminated intravascular coagulation, pulmonary edema, aspiration pneumonia, cardiopulmonary arrest, and acute renal failure. Furthermore, a history of eclamptic seizures may be related to long-term cardiovascular risk and cognitive difficulties related to memory and concentration years after the index pregnancy. Finally, limited data suggest that placental growth factor levels in women with preeclampsia are superior to clinical markers in prediction of adverse pregnancy outcomes. This data may be extrapolated to the prediction of eclampsia in future studies. This summary of available evidence provides data and expert opinion on possible pathogenesis of eclampsia, imaging findings, differential diagnosis, and stepwise approach regarding the management of eclampsia before delivery and after delivery as well as current recommendations for the prevention of eclamptic seizures in women with preeclampsia.

MRI characteristics of brain edema in preeclampsia/eclampsia patients with posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome

BACKGROUND

The neuroimaging manifestations of eclampsia and preeclampsia often overlap, mainly presenting as posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES). The purpose of this retrospective study was to compare the extent and nature of brain edema in eclampsia and preeclampsia patients with PRES based on MRI characteristics.

METHODS

One hundred fifty women diagnosed with preeclampsia-eclampsia and undergoing cranial MRI were enrolled; 24 of these were diagnosed as having eclampsia. According to clinicoradiologic diagnosis of PRES, eligible patients were classified as having eclampsia with PRES (group E-PRES) and preeclampsia with PRES (group P-PRES). A scale on T2W FLAIR-SPIR images was established to evaluate the extent of brain edema, and the score of brain edema (SBE) of both groups was compared. In patients of the two groups who also underwent DWI sequence, the presence or absence of hyperintensity on DWI and hypointensity on ADC maps were determined to compare the nature of brain edema. Furthermore, clinical and biochemical data of the two groups were compared.

RESULTS

The incidence of PRES in eclampsia patients was significantly higher than that in preeclampsia patients (87.50% vs. 46.03%, P<0.001). The SBE of all regions and typical regions in group E-PRES patients were significantly higher than those in group P-PRES patients (15.88±8.72 vs. 10.90±10.21, P=0.021; 8.52±3.87 vs. 5.01±4.19, P=0.002; respectively). The presence of hyperintensity on DWI was determined more frequently in group E-PRES patients than group P-PRES patients (71.43% vs. 32.00%, P=0.024). Age, systolic blood pressure, white blood cell count, neutrophil count and percentage of neutrophils were significantly different between the two groups (P<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Certain MRI characteristics that reflect the extent and nature of brain edema were different between eclampsia and preeclampsia patients with PRES. Additional prospective studies are still required to explore whether these MRI characteristics of brain edema may further become a potential predictor for eclamptic seizures in preeclampsia patients with PRES.

Efficacy of Magnesium Sulfate on Maternal Mortality in Eclampsia

Eclampsia is a common complication of preeclampsia patients and can be life-threatening for both the mother and the fetus. Hence, timely intervention and appropriate management of this detrimental condition are extremely crucial. Eclampsia is described as the occurrence of generalized convulsions in patients with preeclampsia. Magnesium sulfate (MgSO₄) is the drug of choice for treating and preventing eclampsia. This review aims to study and analyze the available literature on the pathogenesis of eclampsia, the pharmacology of MgSO₄, and its effectiveness in the management of eclampsia. Other proposed treatments and their comparative study with MgSO₄ are also discussed. Additionally, we examine the data regarding the impact of eclampsia, its public health burden, and the cost-effectiveness of MgSO₄. One of the major drawbacks associated with the use of MgSO₄ in low-income countries has been the cost of treatment and the lack of resources. We have analyzed the trials that have proposed alternate treatment regimens which could shape new guidelines to resolve these issues. For this review, we extensively studied abstract and full-text articles from multiple databases. This article discusses the pathophysiology of eclampsia, the pharmacology of MgSO₄, the issues surrounding eclampsia management, and how MgSO₄ benefits these patients.

Placental Findings in Preterm and Term Preeclampsia: An Integrative Review of the Literature

INTRODUCTION

 Preeclampsia (PE) is a pregnancy complication associated with increased maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality. The disease presents with recent onset hypertension (after 20 weeks of gestation) and proteinuria, and can progress to multiple organ dysfunction, with worse outcomes among early onset preeclampsia (EOP) cases (< 34 weeks). The placenta is considered the root cause of PE; it represents the interface between the mother and the fetus, and acts as a macromembrane between the two circulations, due to its villous and vascular structures. Therefore, in pathological conditions, macroscopic and microscopic evaluation can provide clinically useful information that can confirm diagnosis and enlighten about outcomes and future therapeutic benefit.

OBJECTIVE

 To perform an integrative review of the literature on pathological placental findings associated to preeclampsia (comparing EOP and late onset preeclampsia [LOP]) and its impacts on clinical manifestations.

RESULTS

 Cases of EOP presented worse maternal and perinatal outcomes, and pathophysiological and anatomopathological findings were different between EOP and LOP placentas, with less placental perfusion, greater placental pathological changes with less villous volume (villous hypoplasia), greater amount of trophoblastic debris, syncytial nodules, microcalcification, villous infarcts, decidual arteriolopathy in EOP placentas when compared with LOP placentas. Clinically, the use of low doses of aspirin has been shown to be effective in preventing PE, as well as magnesium sulfate in preventing seizures in cases of severe features.

CONCLUSION

 The anatomopathological characteristics between EOP and LOP are significantly different, with large morphological changes in cases of EOP, such as hypoxia, villous infarctions, and hypoplasia, among others, most likely as an attempt to ascertain adequate blood flow to the fetus. Therefore, a better understanding of the basic macroscopic examination and histological patterns of the injury is important to help justify outcomes and to determine cases more prone to recurrence and long-term consequences.

Clinical characteristics and prognosis of postpartum acute kidney injury

Objective

To investigate the clinical characteristics and prognoses of patients with postpartum acute kidney injury (PPAKI).

Methods

We retrospectively reviewed the clinical presentations, laboratory examinations, treatments, and outcomes of patients with PPAKI admitted to our hospital from January 2013 to December 2017. We then analyzed the clinical characteristics and prognoses of the mothers and their infants.

Results

Of 37 patients diagnosed with PPAKI, 26 (70.3%) received treatment in the intensive care unit, mainly for hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, low platelet count (HELLP) syndrome (28/37, 75.7%), pre-eclampsia (26/37, 70.3%), and postpartum hemorrhage (22/37, 59.5%). Twenty patients required renal replacement treatment (RRT), but renal recovery times were similar in the RRT and non-RRT groups. Renal function recovered completely in 30 patients (81.1%) and partially in one patient (2.7%), and was not re-examined in two patients (5.4%). Three patients (8.1%) were lost to follow-up. Only one patient (2.7%) remained dialysis-dependent, and no maternal deaths occurred. The preterm birth, low birth weight, and infant survival rates were 70.7% (29/41), 68.3% (28/41), and 78.0% (32/41), respectively.

Conclusion

RRT does not reduce renal recovery time compared with non-RRT. Overall, the prognoses of both mothers and their fetuses are good following treatment for PPAKI.

Neuropathophysiology of preeclampsia and eclampsia: A review of cerebral hemodynamic principles in hypertensive disorders of pregnancy

Preeclampsia and eclampsia are hypertensive disorders of pregnancy associated with abnormal placental vascular development. The systemic angiogenic imbalance, endothelial dysfunction and proinflammatory state caused by abnormal placental development results in abnormalities in renal, hepatic, pulmonary and neurologic function. Neurosensory symptoms related to pregnancy induced hypertension (PIH), the most devastating of which are intracranial hemorrhage and seizure, are among the leading causes of maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality globally, yet risk stratification strategies and targeted therapies remain elusive. Current treatment for preeclampsia with severe features is limited to delivery, antihypertensive therapy, and magnesium sulfate seizure prophylaxis. Magnesium sulfate reduces seizure rates among severe preeclamptics, but predisposes patients to weakness, uterine atony, pulmonary edema and respiratory depression. Therefore, this drug should ideally be administered only to the subset of preeclamptics who are at increased risk for neurologic complications. While there are no objective methods validated to predict eclampsia, we hypothesize that measurement of optic nerve sheath diameters, optic disc height and middle cerebral artery transcranial doppler resistance indices may be useful in identifying subclinical cerebral edema, potentially allowing us to recognize those patients at highest risk for seizures. This summary of the current literature provides an initial framework for developing more sophisticated and noninvasive methods for identifying, monitoring and treating parturients who are at highest risk for neurologic complications from preeclampsia.

Health facility readiness and provider knowledge as correlates of adequate diagnosis and management of pre-eclampsia in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo

BACKGROUND

Hypertensive disorders in pregnancy are the second most common cause of maternal mortality in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), accounting for 23% of maternal deaths. This study aimed to assess facility readiness, and providers' knowledge to prevent, diagnose, and treat pre-eclampsia.

METHODS

A facility-based cross-sectional study was conducted in 30 primary health centres (PHCs) and 28 referral facilities (hospitals) randomly selected in Kinshasa, DRC. In each facility, all midwives and physicians involved in maternal care provision (n = 197) were included. Data on facility infrastructure and providers' knowledge about pre-eclampsia were collected using facility checklists and a knowledge questionnaire. Facility readiness score was defined as the sum of 13 health commodities needed to manage pre-eclampsia. A knowledge score was defined as the sum of 24 items about the diagnosis, management, and prevention of pre-eclampsia. The score ranges from 0 to 24, with higher values reflecting a better knowledge. The Mann-Witney U test was used to compare median readiness scores by facility type and ownership; and median knowledge scores between midwives in hospitals and in PHCs, and between physicians in hospitals and in PHCs.

RESULTS

Overall, health facilities had 7 of the 13 commodities, yielding a median readiness score of 53.8%(IQR: 46.2 to 69.2%). Although all provider groups had significant knowledge gaps about pre-eclampsia, providers in hospitals demonstrated slightly more knowledge than those in PHCs. Midwives in public facilities scored higher than those in private facilities (median(IQR): 8(5 to 12) vs 7(4 to 8), p = 0.03). Of the 197 providers, 91.4% correctly diagnosed severe pre-eclampsia. However, 43.9 and 82.2% would administer magnesium sulfate and anti-hypertensive drugs to manage severe pre-eclampsia, respectively. Merely 14.2 and 7.1% of providers were aware of prophylactic use of aspirin and calcium to prevent pre-eclampsia, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Our study showed poor availability of supplies to diagnose, prevent and treat pre-eclampsia in Kinshasa. While providers demonstrated good knowledge regarding the diagnosis of pre-eclampsia, they have poor knowledge regarding its prevention and management. The study highlights the need for strengthening knowledge of providers toward the prevention and management of pre-eclampsia, and enhancing the availability of supplies needed to address this disease.

Relevance of the assessment of natriuretic peptide plasma concentrations in hypertensive pregnant women

Assessment of the plasma concentrations of natriuretic peptides (NPs) is widely used to diagnose and evaluate the progression of cardiac failure, and their potential as markers of preeclampsia (PE) has been examined in recent years. It has been established that plasma concentrations of NPs do not change in the course of normal pregnancy. However, elevated levels of these peptides may have a prognostic value in patients with PE. This study presents information about the relevance of NPs assessment in the evaluation of physiological pregnancy, as well as in pregnancy complicated with arterial hypertension. The most commonly examined NPs is the N-terminal fragment of the brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP), and it may be prognostic marker of PE and other complications of pregnancy.

Use Profile of Magnesium Sulfate in Anesthesia in Brazil

Objectives: The use of magnesium sulfate in the perioperative period has several benefits, including analgesia, inhibition of the release of catecholamines and prevention of vasospasm. The aim of this survey was to provide an overview of the use of magnesium sulfate in anesthesia.

Method: This was a prospective descriptive cross-sectional study. An online questionnaire was sent to 9,869 Brazilian anesthesiologists and trainees. The questionnaire comprised closed questions mainly regarding the frequency, clinical effects, adverse events, and doses of magnesium sulfate used in anesthesia.

Results: Of the 954 doctors who responded to the survey, 337 (35.32%) reported using magnesium sulfate in anesthesia. The most commonly cited clinical effects for the use of magnesium sulfate in anesthesia were (n/%): postoperative analgesia (245/72.70%), reduction of anesthetic consumption (240/71.21%) and prevention and treatment of preeclampsia and seizures in eclampsia (220/65.28%). The most frequently reported adverse events were hypotension (187/55.48%), residual neuromuscular blockade (133/39.46%), hypermagnesemia (30/8.90%), and intravenous injection pain (26/7.71%). The intravenous doses of magnesium sulfate used in most general anesthesia inductions were between 30 and 40 mg.kg⁻¹.

Conclusions: Magnesium sulfate is an important adjuvant drug in the practice of anesthesia, with several clinical effects and a low incidence of adverse events when used at recommended doses.

Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy

The 4 categories of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy are chronic hypertension, gestational hypertension, preeclampsia-eclampsia, and chronic hypertension with superimposed preeclampsia. These disorders are among the leading causes of maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality. Proper diagnosis in the emergency department is crucial in order to initiate appropriate treatment to reduce the potential harm to the mother and the fetus. Prompt management should be undertaken when the blood pressure is greater than 160/110 mm Hg or there are other severe features such as acute kidney injury, elevated liver function tests, severe abdominal pain, pulmonary edema, and central nervous system disturbances.

Risk factors for eclampsia in pregnant women with preeclampsia and positive neurosensory signs

Objective:

In Morocco, eclampsia remains the second major cause of maternal mortality. Conventionally, patients with preeclampsia and neurosensory signs (NSS) (e.g., headaches and hyperreflexia) are considered at high risk of worsening and progressing to eclampsia. However, this specific population is heterogeneous in terms of eclampsia occurrence. We aimed to identify the risk factors for the development of eclampsia in women with preeclampsia presenting with NSS at admission.

Materials and Methods:

We performed a single-center, retrospective case-control study of patients with preeclampsia with positive NSS from January 1^st, 2012 through December 31^st, 2015, to investigate predictive factors for eclamptic seizures. The case patients were pregnant women with severe preeclampsia who had NSS before developing eclampsia. Control subjects were those with positive NSS without the development of seizures during their hospital stay. One hundred-thirty eight patients with eclampsia and 272 control patients were enrolled.

Results:

Univariate analysis revealed that eclampsia was more likely to develop in patients with the following risk factors: maternal age ≤25 years (χ2=9.58, p=0.002), primiparity (χ2=6.38, p=0.011), inadequate prenatal care (χ2=11.62, p=0.001), systolic hypertension ≥160 mmHg (χ2=15.31, p<0.001), diastolic hypertension ≥110 mmHg (χ2=5.7, p=0.017), generalized acute edema (χ2=14.66, p<0.001), hematocrit <35% (χ2=11.16, p=0.001), serum creatinine >100 μmol/L (χ2=13.46, p<0.001), asparate aminotransferase (AST) >70 IU/L (χ2=10.15, p=0.001), and thrombocytopenia (χ2=22.73, p<0.001). Additionally, independent predictive factors for eclampsia in multivariate analysis included inadequate prenatal care [odds ratio (OR), 8.96 [95% confidence interval (CI): 3.9-20.5], p<0.001), systolic blood pressure ≥160 mmHg (OR, 3.130 [95% CI: 1.342-7.305], p=0.008), thrombocytopenia with a platelet count <50.000 (OR, 13.106 [95% CI: 1.344-127.823], p=0.027), AST ≥70 IU (OR, 3.575 [95% CI: 1.313-9.736], p=0.007), and elevated liver enzymes level, and low platelet count (ELLP) syndrome, which is an incomplete variant of HELLP syndrome (H for hemolysis) (OR, 5.83 [95% CI: 2.43- 13.9], p<0.001).

Conclusion:

This work highlights two major risk factors in this patient population, inadequate prenatal care and ELLP syndrome, which can help in the early identification of patients at highest risk of developing eclampsia and guide preventive measures.

Angiogenic Dysregulation in Pregnancy-Related Hypertension-A Role for Metformin

In the face of escalating maternal and fetal health threats, hypertensive pregnancy disorders (HPDs) is one of the leading cause of maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality. The range of HPDs include white-coat hypertension, chronic hypertension, gestational hypertension, mild-to-moderate and severe preeclampsia and eclampsia. Current evidence implicates an imbalance of circulating anti- and angiogenic factors in HPDs emanating from the placental vasculature, impacting on angiogenesis. Delivery of the fetus is thus far the only curative measure, albeit with increased risk. Resultant endothelial dysfunction caused by the excessive production of placental soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 has been the basis of many studies to find a safer treatment strategy. Metformin, used historically in the treatment of diabetes mellitus has also found its therapeutic reach in many other disease states. These include, but are not limited to, improving blood flow in certain cancer types, treatment of polycystic ovarian disease, improving vasodilation, and reducing inflammation. Metformin is used to treat hyperglycemic endothelial dysfunction through the enhancement of the nitric oxide system, endothelin-derived hyperpolarizing factor and sirtuin 1. Similarly, endothelial dysfunction in preeclampsia and other HPDs leads to a hypoxic state and elevated blood pressures. Dubbed as the new "aspirin" of current times, the retardation of the antiangiogenic status by metformin provides an exciting and promising alternate strategy in treating these pregnancy disorders.

Neonatal Effects of Maternal Magnesium Sulphate in Late Preterm and Term Pregnancies

Aim

To compare the clinical, obstetric and neonatal parameters between patients with > 34-week gestation having severe preeclampsia receiving magnesium sulphate and those with > 34-week gestation with preeclampsia but not receiving magnesium sulphate.

Materials and Methods

Single-centre prospective study studied 60 patients in each of the two groups. Magnesium sulphate was administered by Pritchard regimen as per standard protocol. Standard obstetric management was followed for both groups. In the severe preeclampsia/eclampsia group, maternal blood sample was analysed for serum magnesium levels. The duration of exposure, the amount of magnesium sulphate received and time elapsed between last dose of magnesium sulphate and delivery were all noted. Neonatal assessment was done. The various parameters including age, parity, blood pressure, mode of termination of pregnancy, NICU admission rate, incidence of hypotonia in the newborn and other neonatal parameters were tabulated and compared.

Results

The two groups were comparable with respect to age and parity. Need for induction of labour was higher in the group with severe preeclampsia/eclampsia. Rate of LSCS and birth weights were comparable between the two groups. NICU admission rate and incidence of hypotonia were higher in those who received magnesium sulphate. Amount of magnesium sulphate received and total duration of magnesium sulphate did not correlate with NICU admission rates.

Conclusions

Neonatal morbidity, in terms of higher NICU admission rates and hypotonia, is higher in patients receiving magnesium sulphate.

No Hypertensive Disorder of Pregnancy; No Preeclampsia-eclampsia; No Gestational Hypertension; No Hellp Syndrome. Vascular Disorder of Pregnancy Speaks for All

Hypertensive disorders complicate 5%-10% of pregnancies with increasing incidence mainly due to upward trends in obesity globally. In the last century, several terminologies have been introduced to describe the spectrum of this disease. The current and widely used classification of hypertensive pregnancy disorders was introduced in 1972 and in 1982, but has not been free of controversy and confusion. Unlike other diseases, the existing terminology combines signs and symptoms, but does not describe the underlying pathology of the disease itself. In this commentary, a detailed account is given to vascular disorder of pregnancy (VDP) as an inclusive terminology taking into account the underlying pathology of the disease on affected organs and systems. A simple and uniform classification scheme for VDP is proposed.