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Handy AB, McMahon LN, Goldstein I, Meston CM. Reduction in genital sexual arousal varies by type of oral contraceptive pill. J Sex Med 2023; 20:1094-1102. [PMID: 37295939 DOI: 10.1093/jsxmed/qdad072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Revised: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 04/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although oral contraceptive pills (OCPs) have been associated with decrements in self-reported genital arousal and vaginal lubrication, 1,2 little is known about how these outcomes vary across types of OCPs. AIM The present study examined differences in physiological lubrication and vaginal blood flow, as well as rates of self-reported vulvovaginal atrophy and female sexual arousal disorder, among women using OCPs with varying androgenic properties. METHODS Participants in this study were 130 women: 59 naturally cycling control women, 50 women taking androgenic OCPs, and 21 women taking antiandrogenic OCPs. Participants watched sexual films while their sexual arousal responses were measured, completed questionnaires, and participated in a clinical interview. OUTCOMES Vaginal blood flow, vaginal lubrication, self-reported vulvovaginal atrophy, and female sexual arousal disorder were assessed. RESULTS Results indicated deficits in vaginal pulse amplitude and lubrication for women taking either form of OCP, with marked inhibitory effects found in women taking antiandrogenic OCPs. Rates of self-reported vulvovaginal atrophy and female sexual arousal disorder were also significantly greater in the antiandrogenic group compared with the control group. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS It is recommended that prescribing clinicians consult patients on such physiological effects of OCPs. STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS To our knowledge, this was the first study to compare multiple measures of physiological sexual arousal across groups of women taking OCPs with varying hormonal profiles. Because all OCPs included in this study contained low doses of ethinylestradiol, we were able to identify the specific effects of the androgenic properties on women's sexual arousal responses. However, the self-administered lubrication test strip was subject to user error. Additionally, the generalizability of findings is limited by the largely heterosexual and college-aged sample. CONCLUSION Compared with naturally cycling women, women taking OCPs that contain antiandrogenic progestins experienced decreased vaginal blood flow and lubrication as well as higher rates of self-reported vaginal bleeding and female sexual arousal disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ariel B Handy
- Department of Psychology, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA 02478, United States
| | - Leah N McMahon
- Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, United States
| | - Irwin Goldstein
- Department of Sexual Medicine, Alvarado Hospital, San Diego, CA 92120, United States
| | - Cindy M Meston
- Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, United States
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2
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The moderator role of neuroticism in the relationship between sexual thoughts and affective response during sexual activity, and sexual functioning: A study with heterosexual and lesbian women. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-021-01703-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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3
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Peixoto MM, Nobre PJ. Cognitive-Emotional Predictors of Sexual Functioning in Lesbians, Gays, and Heterosexuals. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2020; 49:1823-1838. [PMID: 32462413 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-020-01732-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2017] [Revised: 04/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Cognitive-emotional dimensions play a core role in predisposing and maintaining sexual difficulties. This study aimed to assess the role of personality traits, sexual beliefs, cognitive schemas, automatic thoughts and affective states in predicting sexual functioning in a Portuguese sample. A total of 226 lesbian women, 254 heterosexual women, 243 gay men, and 274 heterosexual men completed a web-survey. For each sample, hierarchical regression analyses were conducted, separately. Results indicated that positive affective states and fewer thoughts associated with failure and disengagement during sexual activity act as significant predictors for sexual functioning, in both lesbian and heterosexual women's groups. Specific predictors of better sexual functioning in lesbian women were lower activation of schemas of undesirability and incompetence, and fewer thoughts associated with sexual abuse, body-image and sexual passivity were, whereas particular predictors of better sexual functioning for heterosexual women were erotic thoughts, lower activation of schemas of undesirability and difference/loneliness, and beliefs related to sexual desire as a sin. For men's groups, the best predictor of sexual functioning was the presence of erotic thoughts. Particularly for gay men's group, fewer failure anticipation thoughts were also a predictor of better sexual functioning. Overall, this study supports the core and predictive role of cognitive-emotional dimensions in sexual functioning for lesbian and heterosexual women, as for gay and heterosexual men.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Manuela Peixoto
- Psychology for Positive Development Research Center, Lusíada University, Rua Dr. Lopo de Carvalho, 4369-006, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Pedro J Nobre
- Faculty of Psychology and Education Science, Center for Psychology at University of Porto, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
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4
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Granados R, Moyano N, Sierra JC. Behavioral intention to have risky sex in young men and women: The role of sexual excitation and assertiveness. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0232889. [PMID: 32437352 PMCID: PMC7241822 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0232889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2019] [Accepted: 04/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to the complex role of sexual excitation in risky sexual behaviors, this study aimed to disentangle this phenomenon by jointly analyzing the combined role of three forms of sexual excitation: genital and subjective, and individual´s propensity. Therefore, we examined the relationship between the components of the Dual Control Model, that is, propensity for sexual excitation/inhibition, in addition to genital and subjective arousal, and sexual assertiveness and intention to engage in casual sexual encounters in which sexual risk was implicitly or explicitly present. The sample consisted of 99 heterosexual young adults (55 men and 45 women) with ages ranging from 18 to 32 years. Participants performed an experiment in the laboratory, which involved them watching a sexual clip and then being presented with two erotic excerpts (stories) depicting casual sexual encounters in which there was an existence of implicit and explicit sexual risks. In men, the propensity for sexual inhibition was the most determining variable in preventing them from sexual risk-taking. In women, intention to engage in risky sexual behaviors was better determined by their propensity for sexual excitation and sexual assertiveness in negotiating the use of contraceptive methods. This research highlights the relevance of excitation and inhibition as a trait, in addition to subjective arousal and sexual assertiveness in intention to engage in risky sexual behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reina Granados
- Nursing Department, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Nieves Moyano
- Department of Evolutionary Psychology and Education, Faculty of Humanities and Sciences Education, University of Jaén, Jaén, Spain
- * E-mail:
| | - Juan Carlos Sierra
- Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), University of Granada, Granada, Spain
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5
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Granados R, Carvalho J, Sierra JC. Preliminary Evidence on How the Dual Control Model Predicts Female Sexual Response to a Bogus Negative Feedback. Psychol Rep 2020; 124:502-520. [PMID: 32183620 DOI: 10.1177/0033294120907310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The Dual Control Model of sexual response has been mostly tested with men. As such, there is a lack of evidence on how such model applies to women's experience of sexual arousal, particularly when they face a threatening situation such as the threat of sexual performance failure. The aim of the current study was to test whether the Dual Control Model dimensions predict women's sexual responses to a bogus negative feedback about their sexual performance. In addition, 22 women were exposed to a sexually explicit film clip, while their genital arousal was being measured. During this presentation, a bogus negative feedback, aimed at increasing women's anxiety about their sexual performance, was provided. Vaginal photopletismography and self-report questions were used as means to evaluate women's genital and subjective sexual arousal, respectively. The Sexual Excitation/Sexual Inhibition Inventory for Women was further used to capture women's sexual dynamics. Regression analysis on the high-order factors revealed that sexual excitation proneness was the only predictor of the subjective sexual responses, while none of the factors has predicted genital arousal. "Arousability" and "Concerns about sexual function" dimensions predicted subjective sexual arousal. Sexual arousability may prevent women of lowering their subjective sexual responses in a sexually demanding situation, while "Concerns about sexual function" may have the opposite role, thus being a target of clinical interest. This work provides new data on the Dual Control Model of sexual response, and particularly on its role in women's sexual functioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reina Granados
- Mind, Brain, and Behavior Research Center, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain; Department of Nursing, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Joana Carvalho
- Escola de Psicologia e Ciências da Vida, Universidade Lusófona, Lisboa, Portugal; HEI-Lab: Digital Human-Environment and Interactions Lab, Universidade Lusófona de Humanidades e Tecnologias, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Juan Carlos Sierra
- Mind, Brain, and Behavior Research Center, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain
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6
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Questionnaire of Cognitive Schema Activation in Sexual Context: translation and psychometric properties of the Italian version. Int J Impot Res 2018; 30:253-264. [DOI: 10.1038/s41443-018-0055-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2018] [Revised: 05/22/2018] [Accepted: 06/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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7
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Carvalho J, Pereira R, Barreto D, Nobre PJ. The Effects of Positive Versus Negative Mood States on Attentional Processes During Exposure to Erotica. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2017; 46:2495-2504. [PMID: 27734171 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-016-0875-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2015] [Revised: 09/23/2016] [Accepted: 09/24/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The relationship between emotions and sexual functioning has been documented since early sex research. Among other effects, emotions are expected to impact sexual response by shaping individuals' attention to sexual cues; yet, this assumption has not been tested. This study aimed to investigate whether attentional processes to sexual cues are impacted by state emotions, and whether the processes impacted by emotions relate to subjective sexual arousal to a sex film clip. A total of 52 men and 73 women were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions: (1) a negative mood induction condition (sadness as dominant emotion), (2) a positive mood induction condition (amusement as dominant emotion), and a (3) neutral/control condition. After mood induction, participants were exposed to a sex film clip while their focus of visual attention was measured using an eye tracker. Three areas of interest (AOI) were considered within the sex clip: background (non-sexual cues), body interaction, and genital interaction. Self-reported attention, thoughts during the sex clip, percent dwell time, and pupil size to AOI were considered as attentional markers. Findings revealed that the attentional processes were not impacted by the mood conditions. Instead, gender effects were found. While men increased their visual attention to the background area of the film clip, women increased attention to the genital area. Also, sexual arousal thoughts during exposure to the sex clip were consistently related to subjective sexual arousal regardless of the momentary emotional state. Findings add to the literature by showing that men and women process the sexual components of a stimulus differently and by challenging the assumption that emotions shape attention to sexual cues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Carvalho
- School of Psychology and Life Sciences, Lusófona University, Lisbon, Portugal.
- Center for Psychology at University of Porto, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Porto, Oporto, Portugal.
| | - Raquel Pereira
- Center for Psychology at University of Porto, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Porto, Oporto, Portugal
| | - Diana Barreto
- Center for Psychology at University of Porto, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Porto, Oporto, Portugal
| | - Pedro J Nobre
- Center for Psychology at University of Porto, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Porto, Oporto, Portugal
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8
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Paterson LQP, Handy AB, Brotto LA. A Pilot Study of Eight-Session Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy Adapted for Women's Sexual Interest/Arousal Disorder. JOURNAL OF SEX RESEARCH 2017; 54:850-861. [PMID: 27712106 DOI: 10.1080/00224499.2016.1208800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
While few treatment options exist for low sexual desire and arousal, the most common sexual dysfunction in women, a growing body of research supports the efficacy of mindfulness-based approaches. The mechanisms underlying improvements, and whether they are due to mindfulness practice or other treatment components, are unclear. As a result, we designed and pilot-tested an eight-session group mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for sexuality (MBCT-S) program that includes more extensive practice of mindfulness skills and closely aligns with the evidence-based MBCT program for depression and anxiety. A total of 26 women (mean age 43.9, range 25 to 63) with a diagnosis of sexual interest/arousal disorder participated in eight weekly group sessions, before and after which they completed validated questionnaires. The majority of women attended all sessions and completed the recommended at-home mindfulness exercises. Compared to baseline, women reported significant improvements in sexual desire, overall sexual function, and sex-related distress, regardless of treatment expectations, relationship duration, or low desire duration. Depressed mood and mindfulness also significantly improved and mediated increases in sexual function. These pilot data suggest that eight-session MBCT-S is feasible and significantly improves sexual function, and provide the basis for a larger randomized-controlled trial (RCT) with a longer follow-up period.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ariel B Handy
- b Department of Psychology , University of Texas at Austin
| | - Lori A Brotto
- c Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology , University of British Columbia , Vancouver
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9
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Forbes MK, Baillie AJ, Eaton NR, Krueger RF. A Place for Sexual Dysfunctions in an Empirical Taxonomy of Psychopathology. JOURNAL OF SEX RESEARCH 2017; 54:465-485. [PMID: 28121167 PMCID: PMC5433908 DOI: 10.1080/00224499.2016.1269306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Sexual dysfunctions commonly co-occur with various depressive and anxiety disorders. An emerging framework for understanding the classification of mental disorders suggests that such comorbidity is a manifestation of underlying dimensions of psychopathology (or "spectra"). In this review, we synthesize the evidence that sexual dysfunctions should be included in the empirical taxonomy of psychopathology as part of the internalizing spectrum, which accounts for comorbidity among the depressive and anxiety disorders. The review has four parts. Part 1 summarizes the empirical basis and utility of the empirical taxonomy of psychopathology. Part 2 reviews the prima facie evidence for the hypothesis that sexual dysfunctions are part of the internalizing spectrum (i.e., high rates of comorbidity; shared cognitive, affective, and temperament characteristics; common neural substrates and biomarkers; shared course and treatment response; and the lack of causal relationships between them). Part 3 critically analyzes and integrates the results of the eight studies that have addressed this hypothesis. Finally, Part 4 examines the implications of reconceptualizing sexual dysfunctions as part of the internalizing spectrum, and explores avenues for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam K Forbes
- a Departments of Psychiatry and Psychology , University of Minnesota
| | - Andrew J Baillie
- b Centre for Emotional Health and Centre of Research Excellence in Mental Health and Substance Use , Macquarie University
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10
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Goldey KL, van Anders SM. Identification with Stimuli Moderates Women's Affective and Testosterone Responses to Self-Chosen Erotica. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2016; 45:2155-2171. [PMID: 26545913 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-015-0612-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2014] [Revised: 04/15/2015] [Accepted: 08/25/2015] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Sexual thoughts are sufficient to increase testosterone (T) in women, yet erotic films are not. A key confound in past studies is autonomy in stimulus selection: women choose the content of their sexual thoughts but films have been selected by researchers. We hypothesized that self-chosen erotic films, compared to researcher-chosen erotic films, would (1) increase women's self-reported arousal, enjoyment, and identification with stimuli, and decrease negative affect; and (2) increase T. Participants (N = 116 women) were randomly assigned to a neutral documentary condition or one of three erotic film conditions: high choice (self-chosen erotica from participants' own sources), moderate choice (self-chosen erotica from films preselected by sexuality researchers), or no choice (researcher-chosen erotica). Participants provided saliva samples for T before and after viewing the film in the privacy of their homes. Compared to researcher-chosen erotica, self-chosen erotica increased self-reported arousal and enjoyment, but also unexpectedly disgust, guilt, and embarrassment. Self-chosen erotica only marginally increased identification with stimuli compared to researcher-chosen erotica. Overall, film condition did not affect T, but individual differences in identification moderated T responses: among women reporting lower levels of identification, the moderate choice condition decreased T compared to the no choice condition, but this difference was not observed among women with higher identification. These results highlight the importance of cognitive/emotional factors like identification for sexually modulated T. However, self-chosen erotica results in more ambivalent rather than unequivocally positive cognitive/emotional responses, perhaps because stigma associated with viewing erotica for women becomes more salient when choosing stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine L Goldey
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Sari M van Anders
- Departments of Psychology and Women's Studies; Programs in Neuroscience and Reproductive Sciences; Science, Technology, and Society Program; Biosocial Methods Collaborative, University of Michigan, 530 Church Street, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA.
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11
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Poeppl TB, Langguth B, Rupprecht R, Safron A, Bzdok D, Laird AR, Eickhoff SB. The neural basis of sex differences in sexual behavior: A quantitative meta-analysis. Front Neuroendocrinol 2016; 43:28-43. [PMID: 27742561 PMCID: PMC5123903 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2016.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2016] [Revised: 10/02/2016] [Accepted: 10/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Sexuality as to its etymology presupposes the duality of sexes. Using quantitative neuroimaging meta-analyses, we demonstrate robust sex differences in the neural processing of sexual stimuli in thalamus, hypothalamus, and basal ganglia. In a narrative review, we show how these relate to the well-established sex differences on the behavioral level. More specifically, we describe the neural bases of known poor agreement between self-reported and genital measures of female sexual arousal, of previously proposed male proneness to affective sexual conditioning, as well as hints of unconscious activation of bonding mechanisms during sexual stimulation in women. In summary, our meta-analytic review demonstrates that neurofunctional sex differences during sexual stimulation can account for well-established sex differences in sexual behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timm B Poeppl
- University of Regensburg, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Universitaetsstrasse 84, 93053 Regensburg, Germany.
| | - Berthold Langguth
- University of Regensburg, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Universitaetsstrasse 84, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Rainer Rupprecht
- University of Regensburg, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Universitaetsstrasse 84, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Adam Safron
- Northwestern University, Department of Psychology, 2029 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL 60208, United States
| | - Danilo Bzdok
- RWTH Aachen University, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Pauwelsstrasse 30, 52074 Aachen, Germany; Jülich Aachen Research Alliance (JARA), JARA Brain, Wilhelm-Johnen-Strasse, 52428 Jülich, Germany; INRIA, Neurospin - CEA, Parietal Team, Bât 145, Point Courrier 156, 91191 Gif/Yvette, France
| | - Angela R Laird
- Florida International University, Department of Physics, 11200 SW 8th Street, Miami, FL 33199, United States
| | - Simon B Eickhoff
- Research Centre Jülich, Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-1), Wilhelm-Johnen-Strasse, 52428 Jülich, Germany; Heinrich Heine University, Institute of Clinical Neuroscience and Medical Psychology, Universitaetsstrasse 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
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12
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Peixoto MM, Nobre P. Positive and Negative Affect During Sexual Activity: Differences Between Homosexual and Heterosexual Men and Women, With and Without Sexual Problems. JOURNAL OF SEX & MARITAL THERAPY 2016; 42:4-17. [PMID: 25514698 DOI: 10.1080/0092623x.2014.996929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Empirical research suggests that emotional response during sexual activity discriminates between sexually functional and dysfunctional heterosexual men and women, with clinics presenting lower positive and higher negative affect. However, there is no evidence about the role of emotions in gay men and lesbian women with sexual problems. The present study analyzed affective states during sexual activity in homosexual and heterosexual men and women, with and without sexual problems. Participants in this study were 156 men and 168 women. A 2 (group) × 2 (sexual orientation) multivariate analysis of variance was performed. Participants completed a web-survey assessing sexual functioning and the Positive Affect-Negative Affect Scale. Findings indicated a main effect of group, with groups with sexual problems reporting significantly more negative and lower positive affect compared with men and women without sexual problems, regardless of sexual orientation. However, findings have also shown an interaction effect in the male sample with gay men, contrary to heterosexual men, reporting similar affective responses regardless of having a sexual dysfunction or not. Overall, findings emphasize the role of affective responses during sexual activity in men and women with sexual problems, suggesting the importance of addressing emotional responses in assessment and treatment of sexual problems in individuals with different sexual orientations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Manuela Peixoto
- a Faculdade de Psicologia e de Ciências da Educação da Universidade do Porto , Porto , Portugal
| | - Pedro Nobre
- a Faculdade de Psicologia e de Ciências da Educação da Universidade do Porto , Porto , Portugal
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Abstract
Sexual offenses cause significant harm to victims, their families, and society as a whole and thus are an important social concern. While it is commonly assumed that sexual offenses are committed solely by males, research has shown that approximately 5 % of sex crimes in the USA and Canada are committed by females. Penile plethysmography (PPG) is a method to measure male genital arousal, which is commonly used in the assessment and treatment of male sex offenders and men with paraphilic sexual interests. Similarly, vaginal photoplethysmography (VPP) is a test to measure female genital arousal and is commonly used to assess female sexual dysfunctions. Although VPP is currently the most validated method to measure genital arousal in women, its use with female sex offenders or females with paraphilic sexual interests has been almost nonexistent. One explanation for this is that some research has suggested that female genital arousal may not be category-specific, meaning that women will respond to any sexual cues, not just those involving their preferred sexual interests. However, not all research supports this finding. Due to the potential benefits of using VPP in the assessment and treatment of female sex offenders or females with paraphilic sexual interests, it is important that further research be done before dismissing the use of VPP in forensic populations. The purpose of this article is to review the current research on VPP and its applicability to female sex offenders and females with paraphilic sexual interests.
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