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Wise C, Breen M, Stapleton HM. Canine on the Couch: The New Canary in the Coal Mine for Environmental Health Research. ENVIRONMENT & HEALTH (WASHINGTON, D.C.) 2024; 2:517-529. [PMID: 39170948 PMCID: PMC11334179 DOI: 10.1021/envhealth.4c00029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2024] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 05/12/2024] [Indexed: 08/23/2024]
Abstract
Human health is intimately connected and tied to the health of our environment and ecosystem, with only a very small fraction of the risk for chronic diseases explained by genetics alone. Companion animals are prone to disease types that are shared with people, including cancers and endocrine disorders, reinforcing the thought that environmental factors contribute to the risks for chronic diseases. These factors include air and water pollution and the built environment. As such, there is increasing interest in pursuing research with companion animals, and specifically dogs, as sentinel species to inform comparative health assessments and identify risk factors for disease. Of the canine diseases for which environmental exposure research has been published, cancers have received the most attention. This review summarizes two main aspects of this comparative approach: (1) cancers that occur in dogs and which are similar to humans and (2) research investigating environmental exposures and health outcomes in dogs. The goal of this review is to highlight the diverse conditions in which pet dogs may provide unique perspectives and advantages to examine relationships between environmental exposures and health outcomes, with an emphasis on chemical pollution and cancer. Furthermore, this review seeks to raise awareness and stimulate discussion around the best practices for the use of companion animals as environmental health sentinels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine
F. Wise
- Nicholas
School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
- Duke
Cancer Institute, Durham, North Carolina 27710, United States
| | - Matthew Breen
- Department
of Molecular Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, 1060 William Moore Drive, Raleigh, North Carolina 27607, United States
- Comparative
Medicine Institute, North Carolina State
University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27607, United States
- Center
for Human Health and the Environment, North
Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27607, United States
| | - Heather M. Stapleton
- Nicholas
School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
- Duke
Cancer Institute, Durham, North Carolina 27710, United States
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Larrán B, Loste A, Borobia M, Miranda M, López-Alonso M, Herrero-Latorre C, Marca MC, Orjales I. Trace element status in canine endocrine diseases. Res Vet Sci 2024; 174:105309. [PMID: 38781816 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2024.105309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2024] [Revised: 05/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
A balanced trace element status is essential for the optimal functioning of all organisms. However, their concentrations are often altered in diverse medical conditions. This study investigated the trace element profiles in plasma samples of dogs with endocrine diseases and used chemometric techniques to explore their associations with biochemical data. Thirteen elements (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Se and Zn) were measured in 40 dogs with hyperadrenocorticism (HAC), 29 dogs with diabetes mellitus (DM), 11 dogs with hypothyroidism (HT) and 30 control dogs using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Statistically significant differences were observed for As, Cu, Mo, Se and Zn. In comparison with the control group, the HT patients had higher As and lower Se levels, while the HAC group had higher concentrations of Mo. All three disease groups had higher Cu and Zn concentrations than the control group, with the DM group having higher Cu concentrations and the HAC group higher Zn concentrations than the other endocrinopathy groups. The chemometric analysis revealed distinctive association patterns for discriminating each pathology group and the control group. Moreover, the analysis revealed the following associations: Mo with glucose levels and Cu with fructosamine levels in the DM group, As with cortisol levels in the HAC group, and Se with TT4 levels and As with TSH levels in the HT group. The study findings provide valuable insights into the complex relationships between trace elements and endocrinopathies, elucidating the associations with biochemical markers in these diseases. Larger-scale studies are necessary to fully understand the observed relationships and explore the potential clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Belén Larrán
- Departamento de Patoloxía animal, Facultade de Veterinaria, Campus Terra, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina, Facultade de Veterinaria, Campus Terra, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Araceli Loste
- Departamento de Patología Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain; Servicio de Endocrinología, Hospital Veterinario de la Universidad de Zaragoza, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain; Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón-IA2-, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Marta Borobia
- Departamento de Patología Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain; Servicio de Endocrinología, Hospital Veterinario de la Universidad de Zaragoza, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Marta Miranda
- Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina, Facultade de Veterinaria, Campus Terra, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; Departamento de Anatomía, Producción Animal e Ciencias Clínicas Veterinarias, Facultade de Veterinaria, Campus Terra, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Marta López-Alonso
- Departamento de Patoloxía animal, Facultade de Veterinaria, Campus Terra, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Carlos Herrero-Latorre
- Instituto de Investigación en Análises Químicas e Biolóxicas, Departamento de Química Analítica, Nutrición e Bromatoloxía, Facultade de Ciencias, Campus Terra, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - M Carmen Marca
- Departamento de Patología Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain; Servicio de Endocrinología, Hospital Veterinario de la Universidad de Zaragoza, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Inmaculada Orjales
- Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina, Facultade de Veterinaria, Campus Terra, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; Departamento de Anatomía, Producción Animal e Ciencias Clínicas Veterinarias, Facultade de Veterinaria, Campus Terra, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
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Chen L, Liu D, Tan Y. Research progress in cuproptosis in liver cancer. ZHONG NAN DA XUE XUE BAO. YI XUE BAN = JOURNAL OF CENTRAL SOUTH UNIVERSITY. MEDICAL SCIENCES 2023; 48:1368-1376. [PMID: 38044648 PMCID: PMC10929866 DOI: 10.11817/j.issn.1672-7347.2023.230083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/05/2023]
Abstract
Copper, like iron, is an essential trace metal element for human cells. The role of iron overload and ferroptosis has been gradually clarified in tumors, but the role of copper overload and cuproptosis is still being explored. Cuproptosis is a novel mode of cell death, secondary to impaired mitochondrial function induced by copper overload, and characterized by copper-dependent and programmed. The excessive copper leads to protein toxicity stress by binding to sulfhydryl proteins in the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle of mitochondria, disrupting cellular homeostasis and triggering cuproptosis. Copper accumulation has carcinogenic effects on normal cells, dual effects on tumor cells. Liver cancer is one of the most common malignant tumors in China and even globally, with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) being the most common histological subtype. Copper exhibits dualism in HCC, as it both contributes to the growth and invasion of HCC cells, and exerts anticancer effects by inducing cuproptosis. Also, cuproptosis-related genes can be the evaluation of immunotherapy effect and the construction of prognostic models. Clarifying the role of copper death in liver cancer can help explore new methods for liver cancer screening, treatment, and prognosis evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leijie Chen
- Department of Gastroenterology, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410011, China.
| | - Deliang Liu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410011, China
| | - Yuyong Tan
- Department of Gastroenterology, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410011, China.
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4
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Lin Z, He Y, Wu Z, Yuan Y, Li X, Luo W. Comprehensive analysis of copper-metabolism-related genes about prognosis and immune microenvironment in osteosarcoma. Sci Rep 2023; 13:15059. [PMID: 37700003 PMCID: PMC10497601 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-42053-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2023] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite being significant in various diseases, including cancers, the impact of copper metabolism on osteosarcoma (OS) remains largely unexplored. This study aimed to use bioinformatics analyses to identify a reliable copper metabolism signature that could improve OS patient prognosis prediction, immune landscape understanding, and drug sensitivity. Through nonnegative matrix factorization (NMF) clustering, we revealed distinct prognosis-associated clusters of OS patients based on copper metabolism-related genes (CMRGs), showing differential gene expression linked to immune processes. The risk model, comprising 13 prognostic CMRGs, was established using least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) Cox regression, closely associated with the OS microenvironment's immune situation and drug sensitivity. Furthermore, we developed an integrated nomogram, combining the risk score and clinical traits to quantitatively predict OS patient prognosis. The calibration plot, timeROC, and timeROC analyses demonstrated its predictable accuracy and clinical usefulness. Finally, we identified three independent prognostic signatures for OS patients: COX11, AP1B1, and ABCB6. This study confirmed the involvement of CMRGs in OS patient prognosis, immune processes, and drug sensitivity, suggesting their potential as promising prognostic signatures and therapeutic targets for OS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zili Lin
- Department of Orthopaedics, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, Hunan, People's Republic of China
| | - Yizhe He
- Department of Orthopaedics, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, Hunan, People's Republic of China
| | - Ziyi Wu
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410011, Hunan, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuhao Yuan
- Department of Orthopaedics, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, Hunan, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiangyao Li
- Department of Orthopaedics, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, Hunan, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Luo
- Department of Orthopaedics, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, Hunan, People's Republic of China.
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Changsha, China.
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5
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Tang X, Yan Z, Miao Y, Ha W, Li Z, Yang L, Mi D. Copper in cancer: from limiting nutrient to therapeutic target. Front Oncol 2023; 13:1209156. [PMID: 37427098 PMCID: PMC10327296 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2023.1209156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023] Open
Abstract
As an essential nutrient, copper's redox properties are both beneficial and toxic to cells. Therefore, leveraging the characteristics of copper-dependent diseases or using copper toxicity to treat copper-sensitive diseases may offer new strategies for specific disease treatments. In particular, copper concentration is typically higher in cancer cells, making copper a critical limiting nutrient for cancer cell growth and proliferation. Hence, intervening in copper metabolism specific to cancer cells may become a potential tumor treatment strategy, directly impacting tumor growth and metastasis. In this review, we discuss the metabolism of copper in the body and summarize research progress on the role of copper in promoting tumor cell growth or inducing programmed cell death in tumor cells. Additionally, we elucidate the role of copper-related drugs in cancer treatment, intending to provide new perspectives for cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolong Tang
- The First Clinical Medical College, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
- The Second Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of North Sichuan Medical College, Nanchong, Sichuan, China
| | - Zaihua Yan
- The First Clinical Medical College, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
- The Second Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of North Sichuan Medical College, Nanchong, Sichuan, China
| | - Yandong Miao
- Department of Oncology, Yantai Affiliated Hospital of Binzhou Medical University, The Second Clinical Medical College of Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, Shandong, China
| | - Wuhua Ha
- The First Clinical Medical College, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
| | - Zheng Li
- Division of Thoracic Tumor Multimodality Treatment and Department of Radiation Oncology, Cancer Center, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Lixia Yang
- Gansu Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
| | - Denghai Mi
- The First Clinical Medical College, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
- Gansu Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
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Relationships between the Content of Micro- and Macroelements in Animal Samples and Diseases of Different Etiologies. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13050852. [PMID: 36899709 PMCID: PMC10000063 DOI: 10.3390/ani13050852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Revised: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 03/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Many of the micro- and macro-elements (MMEs) required by the body are found in environmental objects in concentrations different from their original concentration that can lead to dangerous animal diseases ("microelementoses"). The aim was to study the features of MME (accumulating in wild and exotic animals) in connection with particular diseases. The work using 67 mammal species from four Russian zoological institutions was completed in 2022. Studies of 820 cleaned and defatted samples (hair, fur, etc.) after "wet-acid-ashing" on an electric stove and in a muffle furnace were performed using a Kvant-2A atomic absorption spectrometer. The content of zinc, copper, iron, cadmium, lead, and arsenic was assessed. The level of MME accumulation in the animal body contributes not only to the MME status and the development of various concomitant diseases, but the condition itself can occur by intake of a number of micronutrients and/or drugs. Particular correlations between the accumulation of Zn and skin, oncological diseases, Cu-musculoskeletal, cardiovascular diseases, Fe-oncological diseases, Pb-metabolic, nervous, oncological diseases, and Cd-cardiovascular diseases were established. Therefore, monitoring of the MME status of the organism must be carried out regularly (optimally once every 6 months).
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7
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de Souza AJS, Malheiros AP, da Silva VL, da Silva TC, Cogliati B, de Sá LRM. Hepatocellular Carcinoma in a Free-Ranging Three-Toed Sloth (Bradypus variegatus). Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12151921. [PMID: 35953911 PMCID: PMC9367539 DOI: 10.3390/ani12151921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2022] [Revised: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The increasing interest of tumors in wildlife is important for biodiversity conservation and for monitoring environmental agents and/or contaminants with potential impact on human health. Here we described the occurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in noncirrhotic liver of a free-ranging three-toed sloth (Bradypus variegatus) from the Atlantic Forest biome in Brazil. The HCC showed a moderate mononuclear inflammatory infiltrate within the tumor tissue but with no inflammation and fibrosis in the adjacent liver tissue. Upon immunohistochemistry, neoplastic cells were diffusely positive for HepPar-1 and glutamine-synthetase presenting an irregular and random immunostaining pattern; β-catenin was positive in the cytoplasmic membrane of malignant hepatocytes; and cytokeratin 19 immunostaining was restricted to bile duct epithelial cells. The liver tissue was negative for HBV-like and HCV-like viruses assessed by molecular tests. The potential similarity of pathogenesis may reinforce the need for research on environmental and/or infectious agents associated with HCC that may contribute to the understanding of cancer in wildlife.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex Junior Souza de Souza
- Department of Pathology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-270, SP, Brazil; (A.J.S.d.S.); (T.C.d.S.); (B.C.)
| | | | | | - Tereza Cristina da Silva
- Department of Pathology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-270, SP, Brazil; (A.J.S.d.S.); (T.C.d.S.); (B.C.)
| | - Bruno Cogliati
- Department of Pathology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-270, SP, Brazil; (A.J.S.d.S.); (T.C.d.S.); (B.C.)
| | - Lilian Rose Marques de Sá
- Department of Pathology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-270, SP, Brazil; (A.J.S.d.S.); (T.C.d.S.); (B.C.)
- Correspondence:
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Langlois DK, Nagler BSM, Smedley RC, Yang YT, Yuzbasiyan-Gurkan V. ATP7A, ATP7B, and RETN genotypes in Labrador Retrievers with and without copper-associated hepatopathy. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2022; 260:1-8. [PMID: 35482566 DOI: 10.2460/javma.21.12.0541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine the frequency of previously reported coding variants in the ATP7A, ATP7B, and RETN genes in a US population of Labrador Retrievers and to explore potential associations of these genotypes with pathologic hepatic copper accumulation. SAMPLE Archived hepatic specimens from 90 Labrador Retrievers collected between 2013 and 2021. PROCEDURES The Michigan State University Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory database was searched to identify archived tissues from Labrador Retrievers that had undergone hepatic histopathologic assessment. Cases were classified into control, copper-associated hepatopathy (CAH), and intermediate populations on the basis of histopathologic features and hepatic copper accumulation. The DNA was extracted from archived tissues and genotyped for reported variants in the 3 genes. Allele frequencies were determined, and associations of genotypes with CAH status were evaluated. RESULTS 29 control dogs, 45 CAH dogs, and 16 intermediate dogs were included in the study. The overall ATP7A and RETN variant allele frequencies were 30% and 13%, respectively, and were not significantly different among control, CAH, and intermediate populations. The ATP7B variant allele frequency was significantly higher in the CAH population (30%) as compared to the control population (13%). However, 21 of 45 (47%) CAH dogs did not have an ATP7B variant allele whereas 7 of 28 (25%) control dogs did have an ATP7B variant allele. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Study results supported a contributory role for the ATP7B variant in CAH pathogenesis in Labrador Retrievers. However, the application of genetic testing in a clinical setting is complicated by genotypic variability within healthy and diseased dogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel K Langlois
- 1Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI
| | - Brendan S M Nagler
- 1Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI
| | - Rebecca C Smedley
- 2Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI
| | - Ya-Ting Yang
- 3Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI
| | - Vilma Yuzbasiyan-Gurkan
- 1Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI.,3Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI
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9
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Polak KZ, Schaffer P, Donaghy D, Zenk MC, Olver CS. Iron, hepcidin, and microcytosis in canine hepatocellular carcinoma. Vet Clin Pathol 2022; 51:208-215. [PMID: 35274348 DOI: 10.1111/vcp.13085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Revised: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Erythrocyte microcytosis in some dogs with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) suggests a derangement in systemic iron. Hepcidin, the master regulator of iron, is secreted by the liver in response to interleukin 6 (IL-6) and/or bone morphogenetic protein 6 (BMP6) and can cause microcytosis. OBJECTIVES Pilot study to compare the quantities of hepcidin, IL-6, and BMP6 RNA molecules in archival tumoral (HCC) and adjacent peritumoral (non-HCC) hepatic tissue to determine if they are different between tissue types or associated with microcytosis. METHODS RNA was isolated from formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded HCC and non-HCC tissue from seven microcytic dogs and four normocytic dogs. Digital RNA counts of hepcidin, IL-6, or BMP6, and six other iron-regulatory genes were determined using the Nanostring nCounter system. The area of blue on each section was digitally evaluated to measure the extent of Prussian blue staining objectively. Parameters were compared between HCC and non-HCC tissue and between microcytic and normocytic groups. RESULTS Hepcidin was decreased, and transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1) was increased in HCC tissue compared with non-HCC tissue. Non-HCC hepcidin RNA counts correlated negatively with MCV and positively with the extent of iron staining. Hepcidin expression was higher in non-HCC tissue of microcytic cases than in normocytic cases. CONCLUSIONS Canine HCC cases showed relatively increased iron staining in non-HCC tissue and decreased hepcidin RNA in HCC tissue. Microcytic cases had higher hepcidin RNA in non-HCC tissue than normocytic cases. Future studies may extend these findings to protein quantification, cellular localization of RNA changes, and determining if iron loading in canine liver is a predisposing factor for HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaudia Z Polak
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Clinical Pathology Section, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - Paula Schaffer
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Clinical Pathology Section, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - Dillon Donaghy
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Clinical Pathology Section, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - Madison C Zenk
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Clinical Pathology Section, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - Christine S Olver
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Clinical Pathology Section, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
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Richard JN, Graham JE, Center SA, Garner MM, Reavill DR. Hepatic copper accumulates in ferrets with and without hepatobiliary disease. Am J Vet Res 2022; 83:371-380. [DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.21.08.0131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
To determine hepatic copper concentrations and zonal distribution in ferrets with and without hepatobiliary disease, validate rhodanine-based qualitative copper scoring and digital copper quantification in ferret hepatic samples, and ascertain whether clinical features predicted copper accumulation.
ANIMALS
34 ferrets, including 7 with necroinflammatory disease, 5 with hepatocellular carcinoma, 13 with non-necroinflammatory disease, and 9 with no hepatobiliary disease.
PROCEDURES
Rhodanine-based digital copper quantification was validated by use of liver dually measured by atomic absorption spectroscopy and digital scanning (R2 = 0.98). Clinical features and hepatic copper scores and concentrations (dry weight liver) were compared between groups. Zonal copper distribution was determined.
RESULTS
Hepatic copper concentration was strongly correlated with copper scores (ρ = 0.88). Ferrets with hepatobiliary disease were significantly older and had significantly higher serum alkaline phosphatase and γ-glutamyltransferase activities and creatinine concentrations. Centrilobular copper accumulated in 23 of 34 (64%) ferrets with (n = 15) and without (8) hepatobiliary disease. Median copper concentrations were not significantly different between ferrets with and without hepatobiliary disease but were significantly higher within neoplastic hepatic tissue in ferrets with hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatic copper concentrations exceeded feline (> 180 µg/g) and canine (> 400 µg/g) reference limits in 19 and 9 ferrets, respectively. Hepatic copper > 1,000 µg/g occurred in 5 ferrets with and 2 without hepatobiliary disease. Clinical features did not predict copper accumulation.
CLINICAL RELEVANCE
Rhodanine-based digital copper quantification and qualitative copper scoring discerned liver copper accumulation in ferrets. Ferrets with and without hepatobiliary disease displayed a propensity for centrilobular hepatic copper accumulation of uncertain clinical importance. Clinical and clinicopathologic features could not exclusively implicate pathologic copper accumulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julianne N. Richard
- 1Department of Clinical Sciences, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, MA
| | - Jennifer E. Graham
- 1Department of Clinical Sciences, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, MA
| | - Sharon A. Center
- 2Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
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Gori E, Pierini A, Meucci V, Abramo F, Muscatello LV, Marchetti V. Hepatic lead and copper concentrations in dogs with chronic hepatitis and their relationship with hematology, serum biochemistry, and histopathology. J Vet Intern Med 2021; 35:1773-1779. [PMID: 34021627 PMCID: PMC8295653 DOI: 10.1111/jvim.16149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2021] [Revised: 04/23/2021] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although the influence of copper ([Cu]) on chronic hepatitis (CH) has been widely studied in dogs, little information is available about the accumulation of other metals. HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES We assessed the concentration of lead ([Pb]) in the livers of dogs with CH with or without abnormal hepatic [Cu] to establish if any association existed between [Pb] and either hematologic or biochemical variables, fibrosis, necrosis and inflammation of the liver on histology. ANIMALS Thirty-four dogs with CH that had hepatic [Cu] and [Pb] determined. METHODS Retrospective review of medical records of dogs with CH and hepatic [Cu] and [Pb]. Chronic hepatitis was defined using current American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine consensus statement guidelines. Hepatic [Cu] and [Pb] were determined using square wave anodic stripping voltammetry. Dogs were divided into 2 groups based on [Cu]: <400 ppm (LoCu) and ≥400 ppm (HiCu). RESULTS The median [Cu] and [Pb] were 357 ppm (range, 100-7743 ppm) and 58.7 (range, 6.89-224.4 ppm), respectively. Nineteen dogs had LoCu and 15 dogs had HiCu. Median [Pb] was significantly higher in HiCu compared to LoCu dogs (P < .001). Hepatic [Pb] and [Cu] were significantly correlated (rho = 0.7; P < .001). Dogs with microcytosis had higher [Pb] than did dogs with normal red cell volume (P = .02). Hepatic [Pb] was not correlated with either necroinflammatory or fibrosis scores. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE Although additional studies are needed to better understand the clinical role of hepatic [Pb], dogs with abnormal hepatic [Cu] may also have higher hepatic [Pb]. In addition, in dogs with high hepatic [Pb], microcytosis may be present.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Gori
- Veterinary Teaching Hospital “Mario Modenato,” Department of Veterinary SciencesUniversity of PisaPisaItaly
| | - Alessio Pierini
- Veterinary Teaching Hospital “Mario Modenato,” Department of Veterinary SciencesUniversity of PisaPisaItaly
| | - Valentina Meucci
- Veterinary Teaching Hospital “Mario Modenato,” Department of Veterinary SciencesUniversity of PisaPisaItaly
| | - Francesca Abramo
- Veterinary Teaching Hospital “Mario Modenato,” Department of Veterinary SciencesUniversity of PisaPisaItaly
| | | | - Veronica Marchetti
- Veterinary Teaching Hospital “Mario Modenato,” Department of Veterinary SciencesUniversity of PisaPisaItaly
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Vincent AM, Sordillo LM, Smedley RC, Gandy JC, Brown JL, Langlois DK. Peripheral markers of oxidative stress in Labrador retrievers with copper-associated hepatitis. J Small Anim Pract 2021; 62:866-873. [PMID: 34029383 DOI: 10.1111/jsap.13361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 03/14/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To evaluate biomarkers of oxidative stress in dogs with copper-associated hepatitis (CAH) as compared with healthy controls, and to evaluate if these markers correlate with hepatic copper concentrations and hepatic histopathologic features. MATERIALS AND METHODS Prospective study. Plasma reactive metabolite concentrations, plasma antioxidant potential, and plasma and urine isoprostane concentrations were determined in Labrador retrievers with copper-associated hepatitis (n=9) as well as in breed- and sex-matched (n=9) and age- and sex-matched (n=9) healthy control populations. Possible correlations between markers of oxidative stress and hepatic histopathological features also were investigated. RESULTS Reactive metabolites (median, range) were over twofold greater in dogs with copper-associated hepatitis (87.2 RFU/μL, 60.9 to 185.6 RFU/μL) as compared to breed- and sex-matched (38.2 RFU/μL, 22.4 to 116.8 RFU/μL) and age- and sex-matched controls (32.0 RFU/μL, 18.5 to 127.4 RFU/μL). Antioxidant potential was decreased in copper-associated hepatitis dogs (6.5 TE/μL, 5.1 to 7.7 TE/μL) as compared to breed- and sex-matched controls (8.2 TE/μL, 5.3 to 11.8 TE/μL). Both reactive metabolite concentrations and the reactive metabolite to antioxidant potential ratio were positively correlated with hepatic copper concentrations. Plasma and urine isoprostanes were variable and not significantly different between populations. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE Labrador retrievers with copper-associated hepatitis have altered oxidant status. Plasma reactive metabolite concentrations and the reactive metabolite to antioxidant potential ratio could be useful biomarkers. However, neither plasma nor urine isoprostanes were useful biomarkers for copper-associated hepatitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Vincent
- From the Departments of Small Animal Clinical Sciences (Vincent, Langlois) and Large Animal Clinical Sciences (Sordillo, Gandy, Brown), and the Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory (Smedley), College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - L M Sordillo
- From the Departments of Small Animal Clinical Sciences (Vincent, Langlois) and Large Animal Clinical Sciences (Sordillo, Gandy, Brown), and the Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory (Smedley), College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - R C Smedley
- From the Departments of Small Animal Clinical Sciences (Vincent, Langlois) and Large Animal Clinical Sciences (Sordillo, Gandy, Brown), and the Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory (Smedley), College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - J C Gandy
- From the Departments of Small Animal Clinical Sciences (Vincent, Langlois) and Large Animal Clinical Sciences (Sordillo, Gandy, Brown), and the Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory (Smedley), College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - J L Brown
- From the Departments of Small Animal Clinical Sciences (Vincent, Langlois) and Large Animal Clinical Sciences (Sordillo, Gandy, Brown), and the Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory (Smedley), College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - D K Langlois
- From the Departments of Small Animal Clinical Sciences (Vincent, Langlois) and Large Animal Clinical Sciences (Sordillo, Gandy, Brown), and the Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory (Smedley), College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
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Zinc in Dog Nutrition, Health and Disease: A Review. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11040978. [PMID: 33915721 PMCID: PMC8066201 DOI: 10.3390/ani11040978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary This work compiles the current state of knowledge regarding zinc requirements of healthy dogs and biomarkers of zinc status. To ensure an adequate zinc status, it is important to know the zinc content of foods and their bioavailability to assess the need and the ideal supplementation strategy regarding levels and sources of additives in complete dog foods. As zinc is required for enzymatic, structural, and regulatory functions in the animal body, its nutritional status has been associated with several pathologies that may be due to, or exacerbated by, a deficit of dietary zinc supply. Abstract Zinc is an essential trace element, required for enzymatic, structural, and regulatory functions. As body reserves are scarce, an adequate zinc status relies on proper dietary supply and efficient homeostasis. Several biomarkers have been proposed that enable the detection of poor zinc status, but more sensitive and specific ones are needed to detect marginal deficiencies. The zinc content of commercial dry dog foods has great variability, with a more frequent non-compliance with the maximum authorized limit than with the nutritional requirement. The bioavailability of dietary zinc also plays a crucial role in ensuring an adequate zinc status. Despite controversial results, organic zinc sources have been considered more bioavailable than inorganic sources, albeit the zinc source effect is more evident after a restriction period of dietary zinc. Many disorders have been associated with inadequate zinc status, not being clear whether the occurrence of the disease is the consequence or the cause. This review presents data on zinc requirements and biomarkers for zinc status, that can be applied for the development of supplementation strategies of zinc in complete pet foods. Moreover, it provides an understanding of the role zinc plays in the health of dogs, and how altered zinc status affects diseases in dogs.
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Zentrichová V, Pechová A, Kovaříková S. Selenium and Dogs: A Systematic Review. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:418. [PMID: 33562028 PMCID: PMC7915357 DOI: 10.3390/ani11020418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2021] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The intent of this review is to summarize the knowledge about selenium and its function in a dog's body. For this purpose, systematic literature search was conducted. For mammals, including dogs, a balanced diet and sufficient intake of selenium are important for correct function of metabolism. As for selenium poisoning, there are no naturally occurring cases known. Nowadays, we do not encounter clinical signs of its deficiency either, but it can be subclinical. For now, the most reliable method of assessing selenium status of a dog is measuring serum or plasma levels. Levels in full blood can be measured too, but there are no reference values. The use of glutathione peroxidase as an indirect assay is questionable in canines. Commercial dog food manufactures follow recommendations for minimal and maximal selenium levels and so dogs fed commercial diets should have balanced intake of selenium. For dogs fed home-made diets, complex data are missing. However, subclinical deficiency seems to affect, for example, male fertility or recovery from parasitical diseases. Very interesting is the role of selenium in prevention and treatment of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viola Zentrichová
- Department of Animal Breeding, Animal Nutrition and Biochemistry, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 61242 Brno, Czech Republic;
| | - Alena Pechová
- Department of Animal Breeding, Animal Nutrition and Biochemistry, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 61242 Brno, Czech Republic;
| | - Simona Kovaříková
- Department of Animal Protection and Welfare and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 61242 Brno, Czech Republic;
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Lehner AF, Dirikolu L, Johnson M, Buchweitz JP, Langlois DK. Liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometric analysis of penicillamine for its pharmacokinetic evaluation in dogs. Toxicol Mech Methods 2020; 30:687-702. [PMID: 32854553 DOI: 10.1080/15376516.2020.1814467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Copper storage disease occurs in multiple dog breeds and is one of the most common causes of chronic hepatitis in this species. The disease is caused by hereditary defects in copper metabolism in conjunction with high dietary copper levels. The progressive copper accumulation leads to hepatitis, cirrhosis, and eventually death if left untreated. Copper chelators are critical in modulating the effects of this disease. It is therefore of significant practicality to understand the pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters of chelating agents, particularly since they are oftentimes quite expensive. A liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric (LC/MS/MS) method was developed to measure plasma levels of one of the most common chelators, d-penicillamine. The compound was discovered to exist in two forms, monomeric and dimeric, and various chemical derivatizations were tried to force the compound into one form or the other. Eventually, the simplest approach was individual determination of penicillamine and its dimer, with summation of the two quantities. This enabled determination of canine PK parameters for penicillamine based on comparison of oral and intravenous administration of the drug, including time to maximum drug level (Tmax), concentration at maximum (Cmax), clearance (Cls) and volume of distribution (Vdss). The drug was found to exist predominantly in the dimeric form in plasma, which is incapable of chelating copper owing to lack of free sulfhydryl groups and must therefore provide a storage form of the drug in equilibrium with its monomeric form in vivo. Mechanisms are discussed for the electrospray-induced fragmentation of penicillamine as well as of its dimer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas F Lehner
- Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Levent Dirikolu
- Comparative Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisianna State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Margaret Johnson
- Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - John P Buchweitz
- Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA.,Department of Pathobiology and Diagnostic Investigation, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Daniel K Langlois
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
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Cedeño Y, Miranda M, Orjales I, Herrero-Latorre C, Suárez M, Luna D, López-Alonso M. Serum Concentrations of Essential Trace and Toxic Elements in Healthy and Disease-Affected Dogs. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10061052. [PMID: 32570865 PMCID: PMC7341321 DOI: 10.3390/ani10061052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Revised: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Establishing reference ranges for essential and toxic trace elements in dogs is important to assess health status and to enable assessments of the background levels of toxic element exposure. On the other hand, establishing whether trace element concentrations vary in relation to different pathologies is also important. Serum concentrations of trace elements may be effective diagnostic markers and may help in understanding the pathogenesis of different diseases (and the associated causal relationships). Abstract This study was designed (i) to establish reference ranges for the essential trace element and background levels of toxic element exposure in the healthy/normal dog population, and (ii) to evaluate whether trace element concentrations vary in dogs suffering from different pathologies. Blood serum samples were collected from 187 healthy and diseased dogs at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Santiago de Compostela (northwest Spain). The samples were acid digested, and the concentrations of trace elements (Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, Se and Zn) and toxic elements (As, Cd, Hg and Pb) were determined by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). This enabled us to establish reference ranges for the essential trace elements and the level of toxic element exposure in dogs, and to identify several clinical situations associated with variations in trace elements in serum. Relative to concentrations in healthy control dogs, statistically significant differences were observed in the concentrations of Cu (significantly higher in hepatic, inflammatory/infectious and oncological categories), Mo (significantly higher in renal category), Se (significantly lower in gastrointestinal category) and Zn (significantly lower in gastrointestinal, inflammatory/infectious and renal categories). Trace element concentrations can be a cause or consequence of disease, and the study findings indicate that trace element determination in serum provides useful information on the pathogenesis of certain diseases. Further research on the serum concentrations of trace elements, particularly in relation to other biochemical parameters and diagnostic tools, may provide valuable information for the diagnosis of diseases in dogs and the disease prognosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yolanda Cedeño
- Department of Animal Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Terra, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (Y.C.); (D.L.); (M.L.-A.)
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito EC170521, Ecuador
| | - Marta Miranda
- Department of Anatomy, Animal Production and Clinical Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Terra, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (I.O.); (M.S.)
- Rof-Codina Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Terra, 27002 Lugo, Spain
- Correspondence:
| | - Inmaculada Orjales
- Department of Anatomy, Animal Production and Clinical Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Terra, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (I.O.); (M.S.)
- Rof-Codina Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Terra, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Carlos Herrero-Latorre
- Research Institute on Chemical and Biological Analysis, Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Bromatology Department, Faculty of Sciences, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Terra, 27002 Lugo, Spain;
| | - Maruska Suárez
- Department of Anatomy, Animal Production and Clinical Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Terra, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (I.O.); (M.S.)
- Rof-Codina Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Terra, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Diego Luna
- Department of Animal Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Terra, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (Y.C.); (D.L.); (M.L.-A.)
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito EC170521, Ecuador
| | - Marta López-Alonso
- Department of Animal Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Terra, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (Y.C.); (D.L.); (M.L.-A.)
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Harro CC, Smedley RC, Buchweitz JP, Langlois DK. Hepatic copper and other trace mineral concentrations in dogs with hepatocellular carcinoma. J Vet Intern Med 2019; 33:2193-2199. [PMID: 31493348 PMCID: PMC6766484 DOI: 10.1111/jvim.15619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 08/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary liver tumor in dogs. Abnormalities in hepatic copper, iron, zinc, and selenium concentrations increase risk for HCC development in other species, but trace mineral concentrations have not been evaluated in dogs with HCC. Objectives To investigate hepatic trace mineral concentrations in dogs with HCC. Animals Archived liver specimens from 85 dogs with HCC and 85 control dogs. Methods Retrospective case‐control study. A histopathology database was searched to identify dogs with HCC (test population) and an age‐matched control population. Demographic information was retrieved, and H&E and rhodanine stained slides were reviewed for all cases. Copper, iron, zinc, and selenium concentrations were determined in noncancerous liver tissues (test and control population) and in HCC tissues (test population) using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Results Hepatic copper concentrations (non‐neoplastic hepatic tissue) were greater in test population dogs (median, IQR; 294.9 μg/g, 233.5‐475.9 μg/g) than in control dogs (202.8 μg/g, 135.0‐295.3 μg/g; P < .001). Hepatic zinc concentrations in test (132.1 μg/g,108.6‐163.2 μg/g) and control dogs (151.5 μg/g, 117.1‐184.5 μg/g) also were different (P = .03). Within test population dogs, all trace mineral concentrations were decreased in the HCC tissue as compared to the non‐neoplastic hepatic tissue (all P < .001). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Hepatic copper accumulation and other abnormalities in hepatic trace mineral concentrations could be involved in the pathogenesis of HCC in some dogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cailin C Harro
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
| | - Rebecca C Smedley
- Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
| | - John P Buchweitz
- Department of Pathobiology and Diagnostic Investigation, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
| | - Daniel K Langlois
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
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