Integrative analyses unveil speciation linked to host plant shift inSpialiabutterflies

Integrative analysis reveals cryptic speciation linked to habitat differentiation within Albanian populations of the anomalous blues (Lepidoptera, Lycaenidae, Polyommatus Latreille, 1804)

The Balkan Peninsula is one of the greatest hotspots for biodiversity in Europe. While the region has been investigated thoroughly, some parts remain understudied and may still harbour undiscovered diversity, even in well-studied organisms such as Lepidoptera. Here we investigated the group of the so-called anomalous blue butterflies, also known as 'brown complex' of the subgenus Agrodiaetus Hübner, 1822 including the taxa of the entire Polyommatusaroaniensis (Brown, 1976) species complex. This species complex is distributed in the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula and known to be represented by three closely related allopatric species, differentiated by their chromosome numbers (n) and mitochondrial (mt) DNA. These are P.aroaniensis sensu stricto (Southern Greece, Peloponnese, n=47-48; mt haplogroup aroa1), P.timfristos Lukhtanov, Vishnevskaya et Shapoval, 2016 (Central Greece, Attika, n=38, aroa2) and P.orphicus Kolev, 2005 (North-Eastern Greece, Southern Bulgaria, n=41-42, orph1). Based on an analysis of chromosomal, molecular and morphological markers, we demonstrate that a fourth taxon of this species complex exists in Albania. This taxon possesses the mt haplogroup aroa3, which is the most differentiated within the entire P.aroaniensis species complex, and the karyotype (n=42-43), which differs by one fixed chromosome fission from P.orphicus. The Albanian taxon seems to be ecologically specialised (habitat on dark-coloured, ophiolitic substrate soils) and differs in colouration (wing reflectance) from the others taxa of the P.aroaniensis species group. Based on the evidence here presented and following the current view of the taxonomy of the group, we propose considering the Albanian taxon as a new species, here described as Polyommatuslurae sp. nov. At the contact zone between the new species and P.orphicus, in addition to typical ones, we detected specimens with haplogroup orph2, karyotype n=43 and intermediate morphology, which seem to represent P.lurae × P.orphicus hybrids.

Butterfly–parasitoid–hostplant interactions in Western Palaearctic Hesperiidae: a DNA barcoding reference library

The study of ecological interactions between plants, phytophagous insects and their natural enemies is an essential but challenging component for understanding ecosystem dynamics. Molecular methods such as DNA barcoding can help elucidate these interactions. In this study, we employed DNA barcoding to establish hostplant and parasitoid interactions with hesperiid butterflies, using a complete reference library for Hesperiidae of continental Europe and north-western Africa (53 species, 100% of those recorded) based on 2934 sequences from 38 countries. A total of 233 hostplant and parasitoid interactions are presented, some recovered by DNA barcoding larval remains or parasitoid cocoons. Combining DNA barcode results with other lines of evidence allowed 94% species-level identification for Hesperiidae, but success was lower for parasitoids, in part due to unresolved taxonomy. Potential cases of cryptic diversity, both in Hesperiidae and Microgastrinae, are discussed. We briefly analyse the resulting interaction networks. Future DNA barcoding initiatives in this region should focus attention on north-western Africa and on parasitoids, because in these cases barcode reference libraries and taxonomy are less well developed.

Underestimated cryptic diversity in the Caryocolumtricolorella species complex (Lepidoptera, Gelechiidae)

The taxonomy of the Caryocolumtricolorella species complex, an informal subsection of the diverse Caryocoluminteralbicella species group, is revised and four species are separated from DNA barcodes of the mitochondrial COI (cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1) gene and adult morphology: C.tricolorella (Haworth, 1812), C.fibigerium Huemer, 1988, C.herwigvanstaai sp. nov., and C.olekarsholti sp. nov. These species show a vicariant distribution pattern, with C.tricolorella widely distributed in Central and Northern Europe, C.fibigerium restricted to the Iberian Peninsula and southern France, C.herwigvanstaai sp. nov. to the Italian Peninsula, and C.olekarsholti sp. nov. to the Balkans. All species are described in detail, and the adults and genitalia of both sexes are illustrated.

Hybridization fuelled diversification in Spialia butterflies

The importance of hybridization and introgression is well documented in the evolution of plants but, in insects, their role is not fully understood. Given the fact that insects are the most diverse group of organisms, assessing the impact of reticulation events on their evolution may be key to comprehend the emergence of such remarkable diversity. Here, we used an insect model, the Spialia butterflies, to gather genomic evidence of hybridization as a promoter of novel diversity. By using double‐digest RADseq (ddRADseq), we explored the phylogenetic relationships between Spialia orbifer, S. rosae and S. sertorius, and documented two independent events of interspecific gene flow. Our data support that the Iberian endemism S. rosae probably received genetic material from S. orbifer in both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA, which could have contributed to a shift in the ecological preferences of S. rosae. We also show that admixture between S. sertorius and S. orbifer probably occurred in Italy. As a result, the admixed Sicilian populations of S. orbifer are differentiated from the rest of populations both genetically and morphologically, and display signatures of reproductive character displacement in the male genitalia. Additionally, our analyses indicated that genetic material from S. orbifer is present in S. sertorius along the Italian Peninsula. Our findings add to the view that hybridization is a pervasive phenomenon in nature and in butterflies in particular, with important consequences for evolution due to the emergence of novel phenotypes.

Integrative taxonomy reveals overlooked cryptic diversity in the conifer feeding Batrachedra pinicolella (Zeller, 1839) (Lepidoptera, Batrachedridae)

During efforts to generate DNA barcodes for all European Lepidoptera, Batrachedrapinicolella (Zeller, 1839) was found to comprise two genetically distinct clusters. Morphological investigation and results from two nuclear markers and ddRAD sequencing furthermore support the existence of two distinct taxa which we treat as two separate species, B.pinicolella and B.confusellasp. nov. A lectotype for B.pinicolella is designated. Available data indicate that the biology of both species also differs, with Piceaabies (L.) Karsten as a proved host-plant for B.pinicolella and Pinussylvestris L. for B.confusellasp. nov. Both species are mainly distributed on the European continent with B.pinicolella occurring in boreal parts of North and Central Europe and introduced to Canada, reflecting a boreo-montane distribution pattern. Batrachedraconfusellasp. nov. is more widely distributed in temperate Northern and Central Europe.

Genomics Reveal Admixture and Unexpected Patterns of Diversity in a Parapatric Pair of Butterflies

We studied the evolutionary relationship of two widely distributed parapatric butterfly species, Melitaea athalia and Melitaea celadussa, using the ddRAD sequencing approach, as well as genital morphology and mtDNA data. M. athalia was retrieved as paraphyletic with respect to M. celadussa. Several cases of mito-nuclear discordance and morpho-genetic mismatch were found in the contact zone. A strongly diverged and marginally sympatric clade of M. athalia from the Balkans was revealed. An in-depth analysis of genomic structure detected high levels of admixture between M. athalia and M. celadussa at the contact zone, though not reaching the Balkan clade. The demographic modelling of populations supported the intermediate genetic make-up of European M. athalia populations with regards to M. celadussa and the Balkan clade. However, the dissimilarity matrix of genotype data (PCoA) suggested the Balkan lineage having a genetic component that is unrelated to the athalia-celadussa group. Although narrowly sympatric, almost no signs of gene flow were found between the main M. athalia group and the Balkan clade. We propose two possible scenarios on the historical evolution of our model taxa and the role of the last glacial maximum in shaping their current distribution. Finally, we discuss the complexities regarding the taxonomic delimitation of parapatric taxa.

The Pleistocene species pump past its prime: Evidence from European butterfly sister species

The Pleistocene glacial cycles had a profound impact on the ranges and genetic make-up of organisms. While it is clear that the contact zones that have been described for many sister taxa are secondary and have formed in the current interglacial, it is unclear when the taxa involved began to diverge. Previous estimates based on small numbers of loci are unreliable given the stochasticity of genetic drift and the contrasting effects of incomplete lineage sorting and gene flow on gene divergence. Here, we use genome-wide transcriptome data to estimate divergence for 18 sister species pairs of European butterflies showing either sympatric or contact zone distributions. We find that in most cases, species divergence predates the mid-Pleistocene transition or even the entire Pleistocene period. We also show that although post-divergence gene flow is restricted to contact zone pairs, they are not systematically younger than sympatric pairs. This suggests that contact zones are not limited to the initial stages of the speciation process, but can involve notably old taxa. Finally, we show that mitochondrial divergence and nuclear divergence are only weakly correlated and mitochondrial divergence is higher for contact zone pairs.

DNA barcodes combined with multi-locus data of representative taxa can generate reliable higher-level phylogenies

Taxa are frequently labeled incertae sedis when their placement is debated at ranks above the species level, such as their subgeneric, generic, or subtribal placement. This is a pervasive problem in groups with complex systematics due to difficulties in identifying suitable synapomorphies. In this study, we propose combining DNA barcodes with a multilocus backbone phylogeny in order to assign taxa to genus or other higher-level categories. This sampling strategy generates molecular matrices containing large amounts of missing data that are not distributed randomly: barcodes are sampled for all representatives, and additional markers are sampled only for a small percentage. We investigate the effects of the degree and randomness of missing data on phylogenetic accuracy using simulations for up to 100 markers in 1000-tips trees, as well as a real case: the subtribe Polyommatina (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae), a large group including numerous species with unresolved taxonomy. Our simulation tests show that when a strategic and representative selection of species for higher-level categories has been made for multigene sequencing (approximately one per simulated genus), the addition of this multigene backbone DNA data for as few as 5–10% of the specimens in the total data set can produce high-quality phylogenies, comparable to those resulting from 100% multigene sampling. In contrast, trees based exclusively on barcodes performed poorly. This approach was applied to a 1365-specimen data set of Polyommatina (including ca. 80% of described species), with nearly 8% of representative species included in the multigene backbone and the remaining 92% included only by mitochondrial COI barcodes, a phylogeny was generated that highlighted potential misplacements, unrecognized major clades, and placement for incertae sedis taxa. We use this information to make systematic rearrangements within Polyommatina, and to describe two new genera. Finally, we propose a systematic workflow to assess higher-level taxonomy in hyperdiverse groups. This research identifies an additional, enhanced value of DNA barcodes for improvements in higher-level systematics using large data sets. [Birabiro; DNA barcoding; incertae sedis; Kipepeo; Lycaenidae; missing data; phylogenomic; phylogeny; Polyommatina; supermatrix; systematics; taxonomy]

High resolution DNA barcode library for European butterflies reveals continental patterns of mitochondrial genetic diversity

The study of global biodiversity will greatly benefit from access to comprehensive DNA barcode libraries at continental scale, but such datasets are still very rare. Here, we assemble the first high-resolution reference library for European butterflies that provides 97% taxon coverage (459 species) and 22,306 COI sequences. We estimate that we captured 62% of the total haplotype diversity and show that most species possess a few very common haplotypes and many rare ones. Specimens in the dataset have an average 95.3% probability of being correctly identified. Mitochondrial diversity displayed elevated haplotype richness in southern European refugia, establishing the generality of this key biogeographic pattern for an entire taxonomic group. Fifteen percent of the species are involved in barcode sharing, but two thirds of these cases may reflect the need for further taxonomic research. This dataset provides a unique resource for conservation and for studying evolutionary processes, cryptic species, phylogeography, and ecology.

Evaluating DNA Barcoding for Species Identification and Discovery in European Gracillariid Moths

Gracillariidae is the most species-rich leaf-mining moth family with over 2,000 described species worldwide. In Europe, there are 263 valid named species recognized, many of which are difficult to identify using morphology only. Here we explore the use of DNA barcodes as a tool for identification and species discovery in European gracillariids. We present a barcode library including 6,791 COI sequences representing 242 of the 263 (92%) resident species. Our results indicate high congruence between morphology and barcodes with 91.3% (221/242) of European species forming monophyletic clades that can be identified accurately using barcodes alone. The remaining 8.7% represent cases of non-monophyly making their identification uncertain using barcodes. Species discrimination based on the Barcode Index Number system (BIN) was successful for 93% of species with 7% of species sharing BINs. We discovered as many as 21 undescribed candidate species, of which six were confirmed from an integrative approach; the other 15 require additional material and study to confirm preliminary evidence. Most of these new candidate species are found in mountainous regions of Mediterranean countries, the South-Eastern Alps and the Balkans, with nine candidate species found only on islands. In addition, 13 species were classified as deep conspecific lineages, comprising a total of 27 BINs with no intraspecific morphological differences found, and no known ecological differentiation. Double-digest restriction-site associated DNA sequencing (ddRAD) analysis showed strong mitonuclear discrepancy in four out of five species studied. This discordance is not explained by Wolbachia-mediated genetic sweeps. Finally, 26 species were classified as “unassessed species splits” containing 71 BINs and some involving geographical isolation or ecological specialization that will require further study to test whether they represent new cryptic species.

Wolbachia affects mitochondrial population structure in two systems of closely related Palaearctic blue butterflies

The bacterium Wolbachia infects many insect species and spreads by diverse vertical and horizontal means. As co-inherited organisms, these bacteria often cause problems in mitochondrial phylogeny inference. The phylogenetic relationships of many closely related Palaearctic blue butterflies (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae: Polyommatinae) are ambiguous. We considered the patterns of Wolbachia infection and mitochondrial diversity in two systems: Aricia agestis/Aricia artaxerxes and the Pseudophilotes baton species complex. We sampled butterflies across their distribution ranges and sequenced one butterfly mitochondrial gene and two Wolbachia genes. Both butterfly systems had uninfected and infected populations, and harboured several Wolbachia strains. Wolbachia was highly prevalent in A. artaxerxes and the host's mitochondrial structure was shallow, in contrast to A. agestis. Similar bacterial alleles infected both Aricia species from nearby sites, pointing to a possible horizontal transfer. Mitochondrial history of the P. baton species complex mirrored its Wolbachia infection and not the taxonomical division. Pseudophilotes baton and P. vicrama formed a hybrid zone in Europe. Wolbachia could obscure mitochondrial history, but knowledge on the infection helps us to understand the observed patterns. Testing for Wolbachia should be routine in mitochondrial DNA studies.

Overlooked cryptic diversity in Muschampia (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae) adds two species to the European butterfly fauna

Cryptic species represent a challenge for documenting global biodiversity. Even in well-studied groups, such as European butterflies, the application of integrative approaches has allowed the recognition of an unexpected number of cryptic taxa. Here, we combine the analysis of mitochondrial (cytochrome c oxidase I, COI) and nuclear (internal transcribed spacer 2, ITS2) markers with geometric morphometrics of the male genitalia to study diversity within the butterfly Muschampia proto. The nuclear marker reveals three well-supported and deeply diverged lineages, which are also detected based on mitochondrial DNA, although the latter recovers one of them as paraphyletic with poor support. These lineages also present distinct male genital characters, which allow blind assignment of > 97% of specimens when applying a jackknife procedure. We conclude that M. proto comprises three cryptic species that started to differentiate ~2 Mya: M. proto, distributed in northern Africa, the Iberian Peninsula and southern France; Muschampia alta comb. & stat. nov., occurring in southern Italy and the Balkan Peninsula; and Muschampia proteides, present in the easternmost part of Europe, the Near East and Iran. This discovery adds two new species to the European butterfly fauna and highlights the necessity to continue investigating potential cryptic diversity.

A new comprehensive trait database of European and Maghreb butterflies, Papilionoidea

Trait-based analyses explaining the different responses of species and communities to environmental changes are increasing in frequency. European butterflies are an indicator group that responds rapidly to environmental changes with extensive citizen science contributions to documenting changes of abundance and distribution. Species traits have been used to explain long- and short-term responses to climate, land-use and vegetation changes. Studies are often characterised by limited trait sets being used, with risks that the relative roles of different traits are not fully explored. Butterfly trait information is dispersed amongst various sources and descriptions sometimes differ between sources. We have therefore drawn together multiple information sets to provide a comprehensive trait database covering 542 taxa and 25 traits described by 217 variables and sub-states of the butterflies of Europe and Maghreb (northwest Africa) which should serve for improved trait-based ecological, conservation-related, phylogeographic and evolutionary studies of this group of insects. We provide this data in two forms; the basic data and as processed continuous and multinomial data, to enhance its potential usage.

Measurement(s)	resources • Egg Laying • larval environment • pupal environment • geographic location • behavior • size • voltinism • phenology • host plant
Technology Type(s)	digital curation
Factor Type(s)	species
Sample Characteristic - Organism	Papilionoidea
Sample Characteristic - Location	Europe • Northwest Africa

Machine-accessible metadata file describing the reported data: 10.6084/m9.figshare.12998828

Recent diversification of Chrysoritis butterflies in the South African Cape (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae)

Although best known for its extraordinary radiations of endemic plant species, the South African fynbos is home to a great diversity of phytophagous insects, including butterflies in the genus Chrysoritis (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae). These butterflies are remarkably uniform morphologically; nevertheless, they comprise 43 currently accepted species and 68 currently valid taxonomic names. While many species have highly restricted, dot-like distributions, others are widespread. Here, we investigate the phylogenetic and biogeographic history underlying their diversification by analyzing molecular markers from 406 representatives of all described species throughout their respective ranges. We recover monophyletic clades for both C. chrysaor and C. thysbe species-groups, and identify a set of lineages that fall between them. The estimated age of divergence for the genus is 32 Mya, and we document significantly rapid diversification of the thysbe species-group in the Pleistocene (~2 Mya). Using ancestral geographic range reconstruction, we show that West Fynbos is the most likely region of origin for the radiation of the thysbe species-group. The colonization of this region occurred 9 Mya and appears to have been followed by a long period of relative stasis before a recent increase in diversification. Thus, the thysbe radiation does not appear to have resulted from the colonization of new biogeographic areas. Rather, the impact of species interactions (with ants and plants), the appearance of key innovations, and/or the opening of new ecological niche space in the region might explain the sudden burst of speciation that occurred in this group 2 Mya. The biogeographic model suggests two different diversification processes with few historical cross-colonisations, one in eastern South Africa for the C. chrysaor group and the other in western South Africa for the remaining taxa. Distributional range assessments and ecological niche models for each species show important niche overlap, and in a few cases, complete overlap. However, these shared traits are not explained by phylogenetic history. Chrysoritis taxa frequently fly in sympatry and gene tree reticulation appears to be widespread at the species level, suggesting that several episodes of range shifts might have led to secondary sympatries, allowing limited gene flow that challenges species delimitation efforts. In addition, the unusually high diversification rate for the thysbe clade of 1.35 [0.91-1.81] lineages per million years also suggests the possibility of taxonomic oversplitting. The phylogeny presented here provides a framework for a taxonomic revision of the genus. We highlight cases of potential synonymy both in allopatry and sympatry, and stress the importance of dedicated studies to assess potential pre- and post-zygotic barriers giving rise to species delimitations of the thysbe group.

A genomic perspective on the taxonomy of the subtribe Carcharodina (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae: Carcharodini)

We obtained whole genome shotgun sequences and phylogenetically analyzed protein-coding regions of representative skipper butterflies from the genus Carcharodus Hübner, [1819] and its close relatives. Type species of all available genus-group names were sequenced. We find that species attributed to four exclusively Old World genera (Spialia Swinhoe, 1912, Gomalia Moore, 1879, Carcharodus Hübner, [1819] and Muschampia Tutt, 1906) form a monophyletic group that we call a subtribe Carcharodina Verity, 1940. In the phylogenetic trees built from various genomic regions, these species form 7 (not 4) groups that we treat as genera. We find that Muschampia Tutt, 1906 is not monophyletic, and the 5th group is formed by currently monotypic genus Favria Tutt, 1906 new status (type species Hesperia cribrellum Eversmann, 1841), which is sister to Gomalia. The 6th and 7th groups are composed of mostly African species presently placed in Spialia. These groups do not have names and are described here as Ernsta Grishin, gen. n. (type species Pyrgus colotes Druce, 1875) and Agyllia Grishin, gen. n. (type species Pyrgus agylla Trimen, 1889). Two subgroups are recognized in Ernsta: the nominal subgenus and a new one: Delaga Grishin, subgen. n. (type species Pyrgus delagoae Trimen, 1898). Next, we observe that Carcharodus is not monophyletic, and species formerly placed in subgenera Reverdinus Ragusa, 1919 and Lavatheria Verity, 1940 are here transferred to Muschampia. Furthermore, due to differences in male genitalia or DNA sequences, we reinstate Gomalia albofasciata Moore, 1879 and Gomalia jeanneli (Picard, 1949) as species, not subspecies or synonyms of Gomalia elma (Trimen, 1862), and Spialia bifida (Higgins, 1924) as a species, not subspecies of Spialia zebra (Butler, 1888). Sequencing of the type specimens reveals 2.2-3.2% difference in COI barcodes, the evidence that combined with wing pattern differences suggests a new status of a species for Spialia lugens (Staudinger, 1886) and Spialia carnea (Reverdin, 1927), formerly subspecies of Spialia orbifer (Hübner, [1823]).

The conundrum of species delimitation: a genomic perspective on a mitogenetically super-variable butterfly

The Palaearctic butterfly Melitaea didyma stands out as one of the most striking cases of intraspecific genetic differentiation detected in Lepidoptera: 11 partially sympatric mitochondrial lineages have been reported, displaying levels of divergence of up to 7.4%. To better understand the evolutionary processes underlying the diversity observed in mtDNA, we compared mtDNA and genome-wide SNP data using double-digest restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (ddRADseq) results from 93 specimens of M. didyma ranging from Morocco to eastern Kazakhstan. We found that, between ddRADseq and mtDNA results, there is a match only in populations that probably remained allopatric for long periods of time. Other mtDNA lineages may have resulted from introgression events and were probably affected by Wolbachia infection. The five main ddRADseq clades supported by STRUCTURE were parapatric or allopatric and showed high pairwise F_ST values, but some were also estimated to display various levels of gene flow. Melitaea didyma represents one of the first cases of deep mtDNA splits among European butterflies assessed by a genome-wide DNA analysis and reveals that the interpretation of patterns remains challenging even when a high amount of genomic data is available. These findings actualize the ongoing debate of species delimitation in allopatry, an issue probably of relevance to a significant proportion of global biodiversity.

A mirage of cryptic species: Genomics uncover striking mitonuclear discordance in the butterfly Thymelicus sylvestris

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequencing has led to an unprecedented rise in the identification of cryptic species. However, it is widely acknowledged that nuclear DNA (nuDNA) sequence data are also necessary to properly define species boundaries. Next generation sequencing techniques provide a wealth of nuclear genomic data, which can be used to ascertain both the evolutionary history and taxonomic status of putative cryptic species. Here, we focus on the intriguing case of the butterfly Thymelicus sylvestris (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae). We identified six deeply diverged mitochondrial lineages; three distributed all across Europe and found in sympatry, suggesting a potential case of cryptic species. We then sequenced these six lineages using double-digest restriction-site associated DNA sequencing (ddRADseq). Nuclear genomic loci contradicted mtDNA patterns and genotypes generally clustered according to geography, i.e., a pattern expected under the assumption of postglacial recolonization from different refugia. Further analyses indicated that this strong mtDNA/nuDNA discrepancy cannot be explained by incomplete lineage sorting, sex-biased asymmetries, NUMTs, natural selection, introgression or Wolbachia-mediated genetic sweeps. We suggest that this mitonuclear discordance was caused by long periods of geographic isolation followed by range expansions, homogenizing the nuclear but not the mitochondrial genome. These results highlight T. sylvestris as a potential case of multiple despeciation and/or lineage fusion events. We finally argue, since mtDNA and nuDNA do not necessarily follow the same mechanisms of evolution, their respective evolutionary history reflects complementary aspects of past demographic and biogeographic events.

An updated checklist of the European Butterflies (Lepidoptera, Papilionoidea)

This paper presents an updated checklist of the butterflies of Europe, together with their original name combinations, and their occurrence status in each European country. According to this checklist, 496 species of the superfamily Papilionoidea occur in Europe. Changes in comparison with the last version (2.6.2) of Fauna Europaea are discussed. Compared to that version, 16 species are new additions, either due to cryptic species most of which have been discovered by molecular methods (13 cases) or due to discoveries of Asian species on the eastern border of the European territory in the Ural mountains (three cases). On the other hand, nine species had to be removed from the list, because they either do not occur in Europe or lost their species status due to new evidence. In addition, three species names had to be changed and 30 species changed their combination due to new evidence on phylogenetic relationships. Furthermore, minor corrections were applied to some authors’ names and years of publication. Finally, the namePolyommatusottomanusLefèbvre, 1831, which is threatened by its senior synonymLycaenalegeriFreyer, 1830, is declared anomen protectum, thereby conserving its name in the current combinationLycaenaottomana.

M. van Swaay, Vila R, Vliegenthart A, Wahlberg N, Verovnik R. An updated checklist of the European Butterflies (Lepidoptera, Papilionoidea)

This paper presents an updated checklist of the butterflies of Europe, together with their original name combinations, and their occurrence status in each European country. According to this checklist, 496 species of the superfamily Papilionoidea occur in Europe. Changes in comparison with the last version (2.6.2) of Fauna Europaea are discussed. Compared to that version, 16 species are new additions, either due to cryptic species most of which have been discovered by molecular methods (13 cases) or due to discoveries of Asian species on the eastern border of the European territory in the Ural mountains (three cases). On the other hand, nine species had to be removed from the list, because they either do not occur in Europe or lost their species status due to new evidence. In addition, three species names had to be changed and 30 species changed their combination due to new evidence on phylogenetic relationships. Furthermore, minor corrections were applied to some authors' names and years of publication. Finally, the name Polyommatusottomanus Lefèbvre, 1831, which is threatened by its senior synonym Lycaenalegeri Freyer, 1830, is declared a nomen protectum, thereby conserving its name in the current combination Lycaenaottomana.

Use of genetic, climatic, and microbiological data to inform reintroduction of a regionally extinct butterfly

Species reintroductions are increasingly used as means of mitigating biodiversity loss. Besides habitat quality at the site targeted for reintroduction, the choice of source population can be critical for success. The butterfly Melanargia russiae (Esper´s marbled white) was extirpated from Hungary over 100 years ago, and a reintroduction program has recently been approved. We used museum specimens of this butterfly, mitochondrial DNA data (mtDNA), endosymbiont screening, and climatic-similarity analyses to determine which extant populations should be used for its reintroduction. The species displayed 2 main mtDNA lineages across its range: 1 restricted to Iberia and southern France (Iberian lineage) and another found throughout the rest of its range (Eurasian lineage). These 2 lineages possessed highly divergent wsp alleles of the bacterial endosymbiont Wolbachia. The century-old Hungarian specimens represented an endemic haplotype belonging to the Eurasian lineage, differing by one mutation from the Balkan and eastern European populations. The Hungarian populations of M. russiae occurred in areas with a colder and drier climate relative to most sites with extant known populations. Our results suggest the populations used for reintroduction to Hungary should belong to the Eurasian lineage, preferably from eastern Ukraine (genetically close and living in areas with the highest climatic similarity). Materials stored in museum collections can provide unique opportunities to document historical genetic diversity and help direct conservation.

Genomics of extreme ecological specialists: multiple convergent evolution but no genetic divergence between ecotypes of Maculinea alcon butterflies

Biotic interactions are often acknowledged as catalysers of genetic divergence and eventual explanation of processes driving species richness. We address the question, whether extreme ecological specialization is always associated with lineage sorting, by analysing polymorphisms in morphologically similar ecotypes of the myrmecophilous butterfly Maculinea alcon. The ecotypes occur in either hygric or xeric habitats, use different larval host plants and ant species, but no significant distinctive molecular traits have been revealed so far. We apply genome-wide RAD-sequencing to specimens originating from both habitats across Europe in order to get a view of the potential evolutionary processes at work. Our results confirm that genetic variation is mainly structured geographically but not ecologically - specimens from close localities are more related to each other than populations of each ecotype from distant localities. However, we found two loci for which the association with xeric versus hygric habitats is supported by segregating alleles, suggesting convergent evolution of habitat preference. Thus, ecological divergence between the forms probably does not represent an early stage of speciation, but may result from independent recurring adaptations involving few genes. We discuss the implications of these results for conservation and suggest preserving biotic interactions and main genetic clusters.

Climatic niche evolution is faster in sympatric than allopatric lineages of the butterfly genus Pyrgus

Understanding how speciation relates to ecological divergence has long fascinated biologists. It is assumed that ecological divergence is essential to sympatric speciation, as a mechanism to avoid competition and eventually lead to reproductive isolation, while divergence in allopatry is not necessarily associated with niche differentiation. The impact of the spatial context of divergence on the evolutionary rates of abiotic dimensions of the ecological niche has rarely been explored for an entire clade. Here, we compare the magnitude of climatic niche shifts between sympatric versus allopatric divergence of lineages in butterflies. By combining next-generation sequencing, parametric biogeography and ecological niche analyses applied to a genus-wide phylogeny of Palaearctic Pyrgus butterflies, we compare evolutionary rates along eight climatic dimensions across sister lineages that diverged in large-scale sympatry versus allopatry. In order to examine the possible effects of the spatial scale at which sympatry is defined, we considered three sets of biogeographic assignments, ranging from narrow to broad definition. Our findings suggest higher rates of niche evolution along all climatic dimensions for sister lineages that diverge in sympatry, when using a narrow delineation of biogeographic areas. This result contrasts with significantly lower rates of climatic niche evolution found in cases of allopatric speciation, despite the biogeographic regions defined here being characterized by significantly different climates. Higher rates in allopatry are retrieved when biogeographic areas are too widely defined-in such a case allopatric events may be recorded as sympatric. Our results reveal the macro-evolutionary significance of abiotic niche differentiation involved in speciation processes within biogeographic regions, and illustrate the importance of the spatial scale chosen to define areas when applying parametric biogeographic analyses.

Karyosystematics and molecular taxonomy of the anomalous blue butterflies (Lepidoptera, Lycaenidae) from the Balkan Peninsula

The Balkan Peninsula represents one of the hottest biodiversity spots in Europe. However, the invertebrate fauna of this region is still insufficiently investigated, even in respect of such well-studied organisms as Lepidoptera. Here we use a combination of chromosomal, molecular and morphological markers to rearrange the group of so-called anomalous blue butterflies (also known as 'brown complex' of the subgenus Agrodiaetus Hübner, [1822] and as the Polyommatus (Agrodiaetus) admetus (Esper, 1783) species group) and to reveal its cryptic taxonomic structure. We demonstrate that Polyommatus aroaniensis (Brown, 1976) is not as widespread in the Balkans as was previously thought. In fact, it has a dot-like distribution range restricted to the Peloponnese Peninsula in South Greece. Polyommatus orphicus Kolev, 2005 is not as closely related to the Turkish species Polyommatus dantchenkoi (Lukhtanov & Wiemers, 2003) as was supposed earlier. Instead, it is a Balkan endemic represented by two subspecies: Polyommatus orphicus orphicus (Bulgaria) and Polyommatus orphicus eleniae Coutsis & De Prins, 2005 (Northern Greece). Polyommatus ripartii (Freyer, 1830) is represented in the Balkans by an endemic subspecies Polyommatus ripartii pelopi. The traditionally recognized Polyommatus admetus (Esper, 1783) is shown to be a heterogeneous complex and is divided into Polyommatus admetus sensu stricto (the Balkans and west Turkey) and Polyommatus yeranyani (Dantchenko & Lukhtanov, 2005) (east Turkey, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Iran). Polyommatus nephohiptamenos (Brown & Coutsis, 1978) is confirmed to be a species with a dot-like distribution range in Northern Greece. Finally, from Central Greece (Timfristos and Parnassos mountains) we describe Polyommatus timfristos Lukhtanov, Vishnevskaya & Shapoval, sp. n. which differs by its haploid chromosome number (n=38) from the closely related and morphologically similar Polyommatus aroaniensis (n=47-48) and Polyommatus orphicus (n=41-42). We provide chromosomal evidence for three separate south Balkan Pleistocene refugia (Peloponnesse, Central Greece and Northern Greece/South Bulgaria) and stress the biogeographic importance of Central Greece as a place of diversification. Then we argue that the data obtained have direct implications for butterfly karyology, taxonomy, biogeography and conservation.