1
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Saha D, Pramanik A, Freville A, Siddiqui AA, Pal U, Banerjee C, Nag S, Debsharma S, Pramanik S, Mazumder S, Maiti NC, Datta S, van Ooij C, Bandyopadhyay U. Structure-function analysis of nucleotide housekeeping protein HAM1 from human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. FEBS J 2024. [PMID: 39003571 DOI: 10.1111/febs.17216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2024] [Revised: 03/29/2024] [Accepted: 06/20/2024] [Indexed: 07/15/2024]
Abstract
Non-canonical nucleotides, generated as oxidative metabolic by-products, significantly threaten the genome integrity of Plasmodium falciparum and thereby, their survival, owing to their mutagenic effects. PfHAM1, an evolutionarily conserved inosine/xanthosine triphosphate pyrophosphohydrolase, maintains nucleotide homeostasis in the malaria parasite by removing non-canonical nucleotides, although structure-function intricacies are hitherto poorly reported. Here, we report the X-ray crystal structure of PfHAM1, which revealed a homodimeric structure, additionally validated by size-exclusion chromatography-multi-angle light scattering analysis. The two monomeric units in the dimer were aligned in a parallel fashion, and critical residues associated with substrate and metal binding were identified, wherein a notable structural difference was observed in the β-sheet main frame compared to human inosine triphosphate pyrophosphatase. PfHAM1 exhibited Mg++-dependent pyrophosphohydrolase activity and the highest binding affinity to dITP compared to other non-canonical nucleotides as measured by isothermal titration calorimetry. Modifying the pfham1 genomic locus followed by live-cell imaging of expressed mNeonGreen-tagged PfHAM1 demonstrated its ubiquitous presence in the cytoplasm across erythrocytic stages with greater expression in trophozoites and schizonts. Interestingly, CRISPR-Cas9/DiCre recombinase-guided pfham1-null P. falciparum survived in culture under standard growth conditions, indicating its assistive role in non-canonical nucleotide clearance during intra-erythrocytic stages. This is the first comprehensive structural and functional report of PfHAM1, an atypical nucleotide-cleansing enzyme in P. falciparum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debanjan Saha
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata, India
| | - Atanu Pramanik
- Division of Structural Biology & Bioinformatics, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata, India
| | - Aline Freville
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, UK
| | - Asim Azhar Siddiqui
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata, India
| | - Uttam Pal
- Division of Structural Biology & Bioinformatics, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata, India
| | - Chinmoy Banerjee
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata, India
| | - Shiladitya Nag
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata, India
| | - Subhashis Debsharma
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata, India
| | - Saikat Pramanik
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata, India
| | - Somnath Mazumder
- Department of Zoology, Raja Peary Mohan College, Uttarpara, India
| | - Nakul C Maiti
- Division of Structural Biology & Bioinformatics, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata, India
| | - Saumen Datta
- Division of Structural Biology & Bioinformatics, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata, India
| | - Christiaan van Ooij
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, UK
| | - Uday Bandyopadhyay
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata, India
- Department of Biological Sciences, Bose Institute, Kolkata, India
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2
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Koussis K, Haase S, Withers-Martinez C, Flynn HR, Kunzelmann S, Christodoulou E, Ibrahim F, Skehel M, Baker DA, Blackman MJ. Activation loop phosphorylation and cGMP saturation of PKG regulate egress of malaria parasites. PLoS Pathog 2024; 20:e1012360. [PMID: 38935780 PMCID: PMC11236177 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1012360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2024] [Revised: 07/10/2024] [Accepted: 06/20/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024] Open
Abstract
The cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG) is the sole cGMP sensor in malaria parasites, acting as an essential signalling hub to govern key developmental processes throughout the parasite life cycle. Despite the importance of PKG in the clinically relevant asexual blood stages, many aspects of malarial PKG regulation, including the importance of phosphorylation, remain poorly understood. Here we use genetic and biochemical approaches to show that reduced cGMP binding to cyclic nucleotide binding domain B does not affect in vitro kinase activity but prevents parasite egress. Similarly, we show that phosphorylation of a key threonine residue (T695) in the activation loop is dispensable for kinase activity in vitro but is essential for in vivo PKG function, with loss of T695 phosphorylation leading to aberrant phosphorylation events across the parasite proteome and changes to the substrate specificity of PKG. Our findings indicate that Plasmodium PKG is uniquely regulated to transduce signals crucial for malaria parasite development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantinos Koussis
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Silvia Haase
- Host-Pathogen Interactions in Cryptosporidiosis Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Helen R. Flynn
- Proteomics Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Simone Kunzelmann
- Structural Biology Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Evangelos Christodoulou
- Structural Biology Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Fairouz Ibrahim
- Proteomics Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Mark Skehel
- Proteomics Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - David A. Baker
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Michael J. Blackman
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
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3
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Morano AA, Ali I, Dvorin JD. Elucidating the spatio-temporal dynamics of the Plasmodium falciparum basal complex. PLoS Pathog 2024; 20:e1012265. [PMID: 38829893 PMCID: PMC11175456 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1012265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2024] [Revised: 06/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 06/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Asexual replication of Plasmodium falciparum occurs via schizogony, wherein 16-36 daughter cells are produced within the parasite during one semi-synchronized cytokinetic event. Schizogony requires a divergent contractile ring structure known as the basal complex. Our lab has previously identified PfMyoJ (PF3D7_1229800) and PfSLACR (PF3D7_0214700) as basal complex proteins recruited midway through segmentation. Using ultrastructure expansion microscopy, we localized both proteins to a novel basal complex subcompartment. While both colocalize with the basal complex protein PfCINCH upon recruitment, they form a separate, more basal subcompartment termed the posterior cup during contraction. We also show that PfSLACR is recruited to the basal complex prior to PfMyoJ, and that both proteins are removed unevenly as segmentation concludes. Using live-cell microscopy, we show that actin dynamics are dispensable for basal complex formation, expansion, and contraction. We then show that EF-hand containing P. falciparum Centrin 2 partially localizes to this posterior cup of the basal complex and that it is essential for growth and replication, with variable defects in basal complex contraction and synchrony. Finally, we demonstrate that free intracellular calcium is necessary but not sufficient for basal complex contraction in P. falciparum. Thus, we demonstrate dynamic spatial compartmentalization of the Plasmodium falciparum basal complex, identify an additional basal complex protein, and begin to elucidate the unique mechanism of contraction utilized by P. falciparum, opening the door for further exploration of Apicomplexan cellular division.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander A. Morano
- Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Ilzat Ali
- Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Jeffrey D. Dvorin
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
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4
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Jimenéz-Ruiz E, Li W, Meissner M. Where is the EXIT? Phenotypic screens for new egress factors in apicomplexan parasites. Mol Microbiol 2024; 121:359-367. [PMID: 37740453 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.15166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Revised: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 09/24/2023]
Abstract
Apicomplexans, such as Plasmodium and Toxoplasma are obligate intracellular parasites that invade, replicate and finally EXIT their host cell. During replication within a parasitophorous vacuole (PV), the parasites establish an extensive F-actin-containing network that connects individual parasites and is required for material exchange, recycling and the final steps of daughter cell assembly. After multiple rounds of replication, the parasites exit the host cell involving multiple signalling cascades, disassembly of the network, secretion of microneme proteins and activation of the acto-myosin motor. Blocking the host cell EXIT process leads to the formation of large PVs, making the screening for genes involved in exiting the cell relatively straightforward. Given that apicomplexans are highly diverse from other eukaryotes, approximately 30% of all genes are annotated as hypothetical, some apicomplexan-specific factors are likely to be critical during EXIT. This motivated several labs to design and perform forward genetic and phenotypic screens using various approaches, such as random insertion mutagenesis, temperature-sensitive mutants and, more recently, CRISPR/Cas9-mediated targeted editing and conditional mutagenesis. Here we will provide an overview of the technological developments over recent years and the most successful stories that led to the identification of new critical factors in Toxoplasma gondii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Jimenéz-Ruiz
- Experimental Parasitology, Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, LMU, Munich, Germany
| | - Wei Li
- Experimental Parasitology, Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, LMU, Munich, Germany
| | - Markus Meissner
- Experimental Parasitology, Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, LMU, Munich, Germany
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5
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Fréville A, Ressurreição M, van Ooij C. Identification of a non-exported Plasmepsin V substrate that functions in the parasitophorous vacuole of malaria parasites. mBio 2024; 15:e0122323. [PMID: 38078758 PMCID: PMC10790765 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01223-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2024] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE In the manuscript, the authors investigate the role of the protease Plasmepsin V in the parasite-host interaction. Whereas processing by Plasmepsin V was previously thought to target a protein for export into the host cell, the authors now show that there are proteins cleaved by this protease that are not exported but instead function at the host-parasite interface. This changes the view of this protease, which turns out to have a much broader role than anticipated. The result shows that the protease may have a function much more similar to that of related organisms. The authors also investigate the requirements for protein export by analyzing exported and non-exported proteins and find commonalities between the proteins of each set that further our understanding of the requirements for protein export.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline Fréville
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Margarida Ressurreição
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Christiaan van Ooij
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
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6
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Pietsch E, Ramaprasad A, Bielfeld S, Wohlfarter Y, Maco B, Niedermüller K, Wilcke L, Kloehn J, Keller MA, Soldati-Favre D, Blackman MJ, Gilberger TW, Burda PC. A patatin-like phospholipase is important for mitochondrial function in malaria parasites. mBio 2023; 14:e0171823. [PMID: 37882543 PMCID: PMC10746288 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01718-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE For their proliferation within red blood cells, malaria parasites depend on a functional electron transport chain (ETC) within their mitochondrion, which is the target of several antimalarial drugs. Here, we have used gene disruption to identify a patatin-like phospholipase, PfPNPLA2, as important for parasite replication and mitochondrial function in Plasmodium falciparum. Parasites lacking PfPNPLA2 show defects in their ETC and become hypersensitive to mitochondrion-targeting drugs. Furthermore, PfPNPLA2-deficient parasites show differences in the composition of their cardiolipins, a unique class of phospholipids with key roles in mitochondrial functions. Finally, we demonstrate that parasites devoid of PfPNPLA2 have a defect in gametocyte maturation, underlining the importance of a functional ETC for parasite transmission to the mosquito vector.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Pietsch
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Abhinay Ramaprasad
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sabrina Bielfeld
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Yvonne Wohlfarter
- Institute of Human Genetics, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Bohumil Maco
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Korbinian Niedermüller
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Louisa Wilcke
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Joachim Kloehn
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Markus A. Keller
- Institute of Human Genetics, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Dominique Soldati-Favre
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Michael J. Blackman
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Tim-Wolf Gilberger
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Paul-Christian Burda
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
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7
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Voß Y, Klaus S, Lichti NP, Ganter M, Guizetti J. Malaria parasite centrins can assemble by Ca2+-inducible condensation. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011899. [PMID: 38150475 PMCID: PMC10775985 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2023] [Revised: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 12/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Centrins are small calcium-binding proteins that have a variety of roles and are universally associated with eukaryotic centrosomes. Rapid proliferation of the malaria-causing parasite Plasmodium falciparum in the human blood depends on a particularly divergent and acentriolar centrosome, which incorporates several essential centrins. Their precise mode of action, however, remains unclear. In this study calcium-inducible liquid-liquid phase separation is revealed as an evolutionarily conserved principle of assembly for multiple centrins from P. falciparum and other species. Furthermore, the disordered N-terminus and calcium-binding motifs are defined as essential features for reversible biomolecular condensation, and we demonstrate that certain centrins can form co-condensates. In vivo analysis using live cell STED microscopy shows liquid-like dynamics of centrosomal centrin. Additionally, implementation of an inducible protein overexpression system reveals concentration-dependent formation of extra-centrosomal centrin assemblies with condensate-like properties. The timing of foci formation and dissolution suggests that centrin assembly is regulated. This study thereby provides a new model for centrin accumulation at eukaryotic centrosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yannik Voß
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research, partner site Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Severina Klaus
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Virology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Nicolas P. Lichti
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Markus Ganter
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Julien Guizetti
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
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8
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Thommen BT, Dziekan JM, Achcar F, Tjia S, Passecker A, Buczak K, Gumpp C, Schmidt A, Rottmann M, Grüring C, Marti M, Bozdech Z, Brancucci NMB. Genetic validation of PfFKBP35 as an antimalarial drug target. eLife 2023; 12:RP86975. [PMID: 37934560 PMCID: PMC10629825 DOI: 10.7554/elife.86975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum accounts for the majority of over 600,000 malaria-associated deaths annually. Parasites resistant to nearly all antimalarials have emerged and the need for drugs with alternative modes of action is thus undoubted. The FK506-binding protein PfFKBP35 has gained attention as a promising drug target due to its high affinity to the macrolide compound FK506 (tacrolimus). Whilst there is considerable interest in targeting PfFKBP35 with small molecules, a genetic validation of this factor as a drug target is missing and its function in parasite biology remains elusive. Here, we show that limiting PfFKBP35 levels are lethal to P. falciparum and result in a delayed death-like phenotype that is characterized by defective ribosome homeostasis and stalled protein synthesis. Our data furthermore suggest that FK506, unlike the action of this drug in model organisms, exerts its antiproliferative activity in a PfFKBP35-independent manner and, using cellular thermal shift assays, we identify putative FK506-targets beyond PfFKBP35. In addition to revealing first insights into the function of PfFKBP35, our results show that FKBP-binding drugs can adopt non-canonical modes of action - with major implications for the development of FK506-derived molecules active against Plasmodium parasites and other eukaryotic pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Basil T Thommen
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health InstituteAllschwilSwitzerland
- University of BaselBaselSwitzerland
| | - Jerzy M Dziekan
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological UniversitySingaporeSingapore
| | - Fiona Achcar
- Wellcome Center for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of GlasgowGlasgowUnited Kingdom
- Institute for Parasitology, University of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
| | - Seth Tjia
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological UniversitySingaporeSingapore
| | - Armin Passecker
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health InstituteAllschwilSwitzerland
- University of BaselBaselSwitzerland
| | | | - Christin Gumpp
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health InstituteAllschwilSwitzerland
- University of BaselBaselSwitzerland
| | | | - Matthias Rottmann
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health InstituteAllschwilSwitzerland
- University of BaselBaselSwitzerland
| | - Christof Grüring
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health InstituteAllschwilSwitzerland
- University of BaselBaselSwitzerland
| | - Matthias Marti
- Wellcome Center for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of GlasgowGlasgowUnited Kingdom
- Institute for Parasitology, University of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
| | - Zbynek Bozdech
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological UniversitySingaporeSingapore
| | - Nicolas MB Brancucci
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health InstituteAllschwilSwitzerland
- University of BaselBaselSwitzerland
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9
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Lima C, Verdaguer IB, Wunderlich G, Katzin AM, Crabb BS, Gilson PR, Azevedo MF. Conditional expression of NanoLuc luciferase through a multimodular system offers rapid detection of antimalarial drug activity. Exp Parasitol 2023; 254:108620. [PMID: 37716462 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2023.108620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 09/06/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 09/18/2023]
Abstract
Conditional gene expression is a powerful tool to investigate putative vaccine and drug targets, especially in a haploid organism such as Plasmodium falciparum. Inducible systems based on regulation of either transcription, translation, protein or mRNA stability, among others, allow switching on an off the expression of any desired gene causing specific gain or loss of function phenotypes. However, those systems can be cumbersome involving the construction of large plasmids and generation of multiple transgenic parasite lines. In addition, the dynamic range of regulation achieved is not predictable for each individual gene and can be insufficient to generate detectable phenotypes when the genes of interest are silenced. Here, we combined up to three distinct inducible systems to regulate the expression of a single gene. Expression of the reporter NanoLuc luciferase was regulated over 40-fold, which correlates to the regulation achieved by each individual system multiplied by each other. We applied the conditionally expressed NanoLuc to evaluate the effect of fast-acting antimalarials such as chloroquine and artesunate as well as of slower-acting ones such as atovaquone. The conditionally expressed reporter allowed faster and more reliable detection of toxicity to the parasite, which correlated to the expected action of each compound. Bioluminescence achieved by the expression of this inducible highly sensitive reporter is therefore a promising tool to investigate the temporal effect of potential new antimalarials. This single plasmid combination system might also prove useful to achieve sufficient regulation of genes of interest to produce loss-of-function phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Lima
- Federal University of Sao Paulo, Santos, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ignasi B Verdaguer
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciência Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, Avenida Prof. Lineu Prestes, 1374, São Paulo, SP, 05508-900, Brazil
| | - Gerhard Wunderlich
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciência Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, Avenida Prof. Lineu Prestes, 1374, São Paulo, SP, 05508-900, Brazil
| | - Alejandro M Katzin
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciência Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, Avenida Prof. Lineu Prestes, 1374, São Paulo, SP, 05508-900, Brazil
| | - Brendan S Crabb
- Burnet Institute, Melbourne, VIC, 3004, Australia; University of Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia; Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, 3004, Australia
| | - Paul R Gilson
- Burnet Institute, Melbourne, VIC, 3004, Australia; University of Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia
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10
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Rawat RS, Gupta A, Antil N, Bhatnagar S, Singh M, Rawat A, Prasad TSK, Sharma P. Protein kinase PfPK2 mediated signalling is critical for host erythrocyte invasion by malaria parasite. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011770. [PMID: 37988347 PMCID: PMC10662742 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Signalling pathways in malaria parasite remain poorly defined and major reason for this is the lack of understanding of the function of majority of parasite protein kinases and phosphatases in parasite signalling and its biology. In the present study, we have elucidated the function of Protein Kinase 2 (PfPK2), which is known to be indispensable for the survival of human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. We demonstrate that it is involved in the invasion of host erythrocytes, which is critical for establishing infection. In addition, PfPK2 may also be involved in the maturation of the parasite post-invasion. PfPK2 regulates the release of microneme proteins like Apical Membrane Antigen 1 (AMA1), which facilitates the formation of Tight Junction between the merozoite and host erythrocyte- a key step in the process of invasion. Comparative phosphoproteomics studies revealed that PfPK2 may be involved in regulation of several key proteins involved in invasion and signalling. Furthermore, PfPK2 regulates the generation of cGMP and the release of calcium in the parasite, which are key second messengers for the process of invasion. These and other studies have shed light on a novel signalling pathway in which PfPK2 acts as an upstream regulator of important cGMP-calcium signalling, which plays an important role in parasite invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahul Singh Rawat
- Eukaryotic Gene Expression Laboratory, National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi, India
| | - Ankit Gupta
- Eukaryotic Gene Expression Laboratory, National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi, India
| | - Neelam Antil
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Tech Park, Bangalore, India
- Amrita School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kollam, India
- Center for Systems Biology and Molecular Medicine, Yenepoya Research Centre, Yenepoya (Deemed to be University), Mangalore, India
| | - Sonika Bhatnagar
- Eukaryotic Gene Expression Laboratory, National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi, India
| | - Monika Singh
- Eukaryotic Gene Expression Laboratory, National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi, India
| | - Akanksha Rawat
- Eukaryotic Gene Expression Laboratory, National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi, India
| | - T. S. Keshava Prasad
- Center for Systems Biology and Molecular Medicine, Yenepoya Research Centre, Yenepoya (Deemed to be University), Mangalore, India
| | - Pushkar Sharma
- Eukaryotic Gene Expression Laboratory, National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi, India
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11
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Davies H, Belda H, Broncel M, Dalimot J, Treeck M. PerTurboID, a targeted in situ method reveals the impact of kinase deletion on its local protein environment in the cytoadhesion complex of malaria-causing parasites. eLife 2023; 12:e86367. [PMID: 37737226 PMCID: PMC10564455 DOI: 10.7554/elife.86367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Reverse genetics is key to understanding protein function, but the mechanistic connection between a gene of interest and the observed phenotype is not always clear. Here we describe the use of proximity labeling using TurboID and site-specific quantification of biotinylated peptides to measure changes to the local protein environment of selected targets upon perturbation. We apply this technique, which we call PerTurboID, to understand how the Plasmodium falciparum-exported kinase, FIKK4.1, regulates the function of the major virulence factor of the malaria-causing parasite, PfEMP1. We generated independent TurboID fusions of two proteins that are predicted substrates of FIKK4.1 in a FIKK4.1 conditional KO parasite line. Comparing the abundance of site-specific biotinylated peptides between wildtype and kinase deletion lines reveals the differential accessibility of proteins to biotinylation, indicating changes to localization, protein-protein interactions, or protein structure which are mediated by FIKK4.1 activity. We further show that FIKK4.1 is likely the only FIKK kinase that controls surface levels of PfEMP1, but not other surface antigens, on the infected red blood cell under standard culture conditions. We believe PerTurboID is broadly applicable to study the impact of genetic or environmental perturbation on a selected cellular niche.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heledd Davies
- Signalling in Apicomplexan Parasites Laboratory, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Hugo Belda
- Signalling in Apicomplexan Parasites Laboratory, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Malgorzata Broncel
- Signalling in Apicomplexan Parasites Laboratory, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Jill Dalimot
- Signalling in Apicomplexan Parasites Laboratory, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Moritz Treeck
- Signalling in Apicomplexan Parasites Laboratory, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
- Cell Biology of Host-Pathogen Interaction Laboratory, Gulbenkian Institute of ScienceOeirasPortugal
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12
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Burda PC, Ramaprasad A, Bielfeld S, Pietsch E, Woitalla A, Söhnchen C, Singh MN, Strauss J, Sait A, Collinson LM, Schwudke D, Blackman MJ, Gilberger TW. Global analysis of putative phospholipases in Plasmodium falciparum reveals an essential role of the phosphoinositide-specific phospholipase C in parasite maturation. mBio 2023; 14:e0141323. [PMID: 37489900 PMCID: PMC10470789 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01413-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 07/26/2023] Open
Abstract
For its replication within red blood cells, the malaria parasite depends on a highly active and regulated lipid metabolism. Enzymes involved in lipid metabolic processes such as phospholipases are, therefore, potential drug targets. Here, using reverse genetics approaches, we show that only 1 out of the 19 putative phospholipases expressed in asexual blood stages of Plasmodium falciparum is essential for proliferation in vitro, pointing toward a high level of redundancy among members of this enzyme family. Using conditional mislocalization and gene disruption techniques, we show that this essential phosphoinositide-specific phospholipase C (PI-PLC, PF3D7_1013500) has a previously unrecognized essential role during intracellular parasite maturation, long before its previously perceived role in parasite egress and invasion. Subsequent lipidomic analysis suggests that PI-PLC mediates cleavage of phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate (PIP2) in schizont-stage parasites, underlining its critical role in regulating phosphoinositide levels in the parasite. IMPORTANCE The clinical symptoms of malaria arise due to repeated rounds of replication of Plasmodium parasites within red blood cells (RBCs). Central to this is an intense period of membrane biogenesis. Generation of membranes not only requires de novo synthesis and acquisition but also the degradation of phospholipids, a function that is performed by phospholipases. In this study, we investigate the essentiality of the 19 putative phospholipase enzymes that the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum expresses during its replication within RBCs. We not only show that a high level of functional redundancy exists among these enzymes but, at the same time, also identify an essential role for the phosphoinositide-specific phospholipase C in parasite development and cleavage of the phospholipid phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul-Christian Burda
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Abhinay Ramaprasad
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sabrina Bielfeld
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Emma Pietsch
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Anna Woitalla
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Research Center Borstel, Leibniz Lung Center, Borstel, Germany
| | - Christoph Söhnchen
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Mehar Nihal Singh
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jan Strauss
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Aaron Sait
- Electron Microscopy Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Lucy M. Collinson
- Electron Microscopy Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Dominik Schwudke
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Research Center Borstel, Leibniz Lung Center, Borstel, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research, Thematic Translational Unit Tuberculosis, Partner Site Hamburg-Lübeck-Borstel-Riems, Borstel, Germany
- German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Airway Research Center North (ARCN), Research Center Borstel, Leibniz Lung Center, Borstel, Germany
| | - Michael J. Blackman
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Tim-Wolf Gilberger
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
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13
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Voorberg-van der Wel A, Zeeman AM, Kocken CHM. Transfection Models to Investigate Plasmodium vivax-Type Dormant Liver Stage Parasites. Pathogens 2023; 12:1070. [PMID: 37764878 PMCID: PMC10534883 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12091070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2023] [Revised: 08/17/2023] [Accepted: 08/21/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium vivax causes the second highest number of malaria morbidity and mortality cases in humans. Several biological traits of this parasite species, including the formation of dormant stages (hypnozoites) that persist inside the liver for prolonged periods of time, present an obstacle for intervention measures and create a barrier for the elimination of malaria. Research into the biology of hypnozoites requires efficient systems for parasite transmission, liver stage cultivation and genetic modification. However, P. vivax research is hampered by the lack of an in vitro blood stage culture system, rendering it reliant on in vivo-derived, mainly patient, material for transmission and liver stage culture. This has also resulted in limited capability for genetic modification, creating a bottleneck in investigations into the mechanisms underlying the persistence of the parasite inside the liver. This bottleneck can be overcome through optimal use of the closely related and experimentally more amenable nonhuman primate (NHP) parasite, Plasmodium cynomolgi, as a model system. In this review, we discuss the genetic modification tools and liver stage cultivation platforms available for studying P. vivax persistent stages and highlight how their combined use may advance our understanding of hypnozoite biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annemarie Voorberg-van der Wel
- Department of Parasitology, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, 2288 GJ Rijswijk, The Netherlands; (A.-M.Z.); (C.H.M.K.)
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14
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Fierro MA, Hussain T, Campin LJ, Beck JR. Knock-sideways by inducible ER retrieval enables a unique approach for studying Plasmodium-secreted proteins. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2308676120. [PMID: 37552754 PMCID: PMC10433460 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2308676120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Malaria parasites uniquely depend on protein secretion for their obligate intracellular lifestyle but approaches for dissecting Plasmodium-secreted protein functions are limited. We report knockER, a unique DiCre-mediated knock-sideways approach to sequester secreted proteins in the ER by inducible fusion with a KDEL ER-retrieval sequence. We show conditional ER sequestration of diverse proteins is not generally toxic, enabling loss-of-function studies. We employed knockER in multiple Plasmodium species to interrogate the trafficking, topology, and function of an assortment of proteins that traverse the secretory pathway to diverse compartments including the apicoplast (ClpB1), rhoptries (RON6), dense granules, and parasitophorous vacuole (EXP2, PTEX150, HSP101). Taking advantage of the unique ability to redistribute secreted proteins from their terminal destination to the ER, we reveal that vacuolar levels of the PTEX translocon component HSP101 but not PTEX150 are maintained in excess of what is required to sustain effector protein export into the erythrocyte. Intriguingly, vacuole depletion of HSP101 hypersensitized parasites to a destabilization tag that inhibits HSP101-PTEX complex formation but not to translational knockdown of the entire HSP101 pool, illustrating how redistribution of a target protein by knockER can be used to query function in a compartment-specific manner. Collectively, our results establish knockER as a unique tool for dissecting secreted protein function with subcompartmental resolution that should be widely amenable to genetically tractable eukaryotes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel A. Fierro
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA50011
| | - Tahir Hussain
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA50011
| | - Liam J. Campin
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA50011
| | - Josh R. Beck
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA50011
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA50011
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15
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Kuehnel RM, Ganga E, Balestra AC, Suarez C, Wyss M, Klages N, Brusini L, Maco B, Brancucci N, Voss TS, Soldati D, Brochet M. A Plasmodium membrane receptor platform integrates cues for egress and invasion in blood forms and activation of transmission stages. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadf2161. [PMID: 37327340 PMCID: PMC10275601 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adf2161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Accepted: 05/11/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Critical events in the life cycle of malaria-causing parasites depend on cyclic guanosine monophosphate homeostasis by guanylyl cyclases (GCs) and phosphodiesterases, including merozoite egress or invasion of erythrocytes and gametocyte activation. These processes rely on a single GCα, but in the absence of known signaling receptors, how this pathway integrates distinct triggers is unknown. We show that temperature-dependent epistatic interactions between phosphodiesterases counterbalance GCα basal activity preventing gametocyte activation before mosquito blood feed. GCα interacts with two multipass membrane cofactors in schizonts and gametocytes: UGO (unique GC organizer) and SLF (signaling linking factor). While SLF regulates GCα basal activity, UGO is essential for GCα up-regulation in response to natural signals inducing merozoite egress and gametocyte activation. This work identifies a GC membrane receptor platform that senses signals triggering processes specific to an intracellular parasitic lifestyle, including host cell egress and invasion to ensure intraerythrocytic amplification and transmission to mosquitoes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronja Marie Kuehnel
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, 1 Rue Michel Servet, 12111 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Emma Ganga
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, 1 Rue Michel Servet, 12111 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Aurélia C. Balestra
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, 1 Rue Michel Servet, 12111 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Catherine Suarez
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, 1 Rue Michel Servet, 12111 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Matthias Wyss
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4123 Allschwil, Switzerland
- University of Basel, 4001 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Natacha Klages
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, 1 Rue Michel Servet, 12111 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Lorenzo Brusini
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, 1 Rue Michel Servet, 12111 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Bohumil Maco
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, 1 Rue Michel Servet, 12111 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas Brancucci
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4123 Allschwil, Switzerland
- University of Basel, 4001 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Till S. Voss
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4123 Allschwil, Switzerland
- University of Basel, 4001 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Dominique Soldati
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, 1 Rue Michel Servet, 12111 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Mathieu Brochet
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, 1 Rue Michel Servet, 12111 Geneva, Switzerland
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16
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Activity-Based Protein Profiling of Human and Plasmodium Serine Hydrolases and Interrogation of Potential Antimalarial Targets. iScience 2022; 25:104996. [PMID: 36105595 PMCID: PMC9464883 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.104996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Revised: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria remains a global health issue requiring the identification of novel therapeutic targets to combat drug resistance. Metabolic serine hydrolases are druggable enzymes playing essential roles in lipid metabolism. However, very few have been investigated in malaria-causing parasites. Here, we used fluorophosphonate broad-spectrum activity-based probes and quantitative chemical proteomics to annotate and profile the activity of more than half of predicted serine hydrolases in P. falciparum across the erythrocytic cycle. Using conditional genetics, we demonstrate that the activities of four serine hydrolases, previously annotated as essential (or important) in genetic screens, are actually dispensable for parasite replication. Of importance, we also identified eight human serine hydrolases that are specifically activated at different developmental stages. Chemical inhibition of two of them blocks parasite replication. This strongly suggests that parasites co-opt the activity of host enzymes and that this opens a new drug development strategy against which the parasites are less likely to develop resistance. P. falciparum has 48 predicted metabolic SHs. Many react with the ABP, FP-N3 The activity of 25 PfSHs and 8 HsSHs was profiled throughout the asexual life cycle Catalytic mutants of 4 PfSHs (formerly held essential) had no parasite growth effect Selective inhibitors for 2 HsSHs (APEH and LPLA2) affected parasite growth
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17
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CDC50 Orthologues in Plasmodium falciparum Have Distinct Roles in Merozoite Egress and Trophozoite Maturation. mBio 2022; 13:e0163522. [PMID: 35862778 PMCID: PMC9426505 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01635-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In model organisms, type IV ATPases (P4-ATPases) require cell division control protein 50 (CDC50) chaperones for their phospholipid flipping activity. In the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum, guanylyl cyclase alpha (GCα) is an integral membrane protein that is essential for release (egress) of merozoites from their host erythrocytes. GCα is unusual in that it contains both a C-terminal cyclase domain and an N-terminal P4-ATPase domain of unknown function. We sought to investigate whether any of the three CDC50 orthologues (termed A, B, and C) encoded by P. falciparum are required for GCα function. Using gene tagging and conditional gene disruption, we demonstrate that CDC50B and CDC50C but not CDC50A are expressed in the clinically important asexual blood stages and that CDC50B is a binding partner of GCα whereas CDC50C is the binding partner of another putative P4-ATPase, phospholipid-transporting ATPase 2 (ATP2). Our findings indicate that CDC50B has no essential role for intraerythrocytic parasite maturation but modulates the rate of parasite egress by interacting with GCα for optimal cGMP synthesis. In contrast, CDC50C is essential for blood stage trophozoite maturation. Additionally, we find that the CDC50C-ATP2 complex may influence parasite endocytosis of host cell hemoglobin and consequently hemozoin formation.
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18
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Liang X, Boonhok R, Siddiqui FA, Xiao B, Li X, Qin J, Min H, Jiang L, Cui L, Miao J. A Leak-Free Inducible CRISPRi/a System for Gene Functional Studies in Plasmodium falciparum. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0278221. [PMID: 35510853 PMCID: PMC9241666 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.02782-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Accepted: 04/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
By fusing catalytically dead Cas9 (dCas9) to active domains of histone deacetylase (Sir2a) or acetyltransferase (GCN5), this CRISPR interference/activation (CRISPRi/a) system allows gene regulation at the transcriptional level without causing permanent changes in the parasite genome. However, the constitutive expression of dCas9 poses a challenge for studying essential genes, which may lead to adaptive changes in the parasite, masking the true phenotypes. Here, we developed a leak-free inducible CRISPRi/a system by integrating the DiCre/loxP regulon to allow the expression of dCas9-GCN5/-Sir2a upon transient induction with rapamycin, which allows convenient transcriptional regulation of a gene of interest by introducing a guide RNA targeting its transcription start region. Using eight genes that are either silent or expressed from low to high levels during asexual erythrocytic development, we evaluated the robustness and versatility of this system in the asexual parasites. For most genes analyzed, this inducible CRISPRi/a system led to 1.5- to 3-fold up-or downregulation of the target genes at the mRNA level. Alteration in the expression of PfK13 and PfMYST resulted in altered sensitivities to artemisinin. For autophagy-related protein 18, an essential gene related to artemisinin resistance, a >2-fold up- or downregulation was obtained by inducible CRISPRi/a, leading to growth retardation. For the master regulator of gametocytogenesis, PfAP2-G, a >10-fold increase of the PfAP2-G transcripts was obtained by CRISPRa, resulting in >4-fold higher gametocytemia in the induced parasites. Additionally, inducible CRISPRi/a could also regulate gene expression in gametocytes. This inducible epigenetic regulation system offers a fast way of studying gene functions in Plasmodium falciparum. IMPORTANCE Understanding the fundamental biology of malaria parasites through functional genetic/genomic studies is critical for identifying novel targets for antimalarial development. Conditional knockout/knockdown systems are required to study essential genes in the haploid blood stages of the parasite. In this study, we developed an inducible CRISPRi/a system via the integration of DiCre/loxP. We evaluated the robustness and versatility of this system by activating or repressing eight selected genes and achieved up- and downregulation of the targeted genes located in both the euchromatin and heterochromatin regions. This system offers the malaria research community another tool for functional genetic studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoying Liang
- Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Rachasak Boonhok
- Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Faiza Amber Siddiqui
- Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Bo Xiao
- Unit of Human Parasite Molecular and Cell Biology, Key Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Immunology, Pasteur Institute of Shanghai, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiaolian Li
- Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Junling Qin
- Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Hui Min
- Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Lubin Jiang
- Unit of Human Parasite Molecular and Cell Biology, Key Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Immunology, Pasteur Institute of Shanghai, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Liwang Cui
- Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
- Center for Global Health and Infectious Diseases Research, College of Public Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Jun Miao
- Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
- Center for Global Health and Infectious Diseases Research, College of Public Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
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19
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Fernandes P, Loubens M, Le Borgne R, Marinach C, Ardin B, Briquet S, Vincensini L, Hamada S, Hoareau-Coudert B, Verbavatz JM, Weiner A, Silvie O. The AMA1-RON complex drives Plasmodium sporozoite invasion in the mosquito and mammalian hosts. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1010643. [PMID: 35731833 PMCID: PMC9255738 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Revised: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 06/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium sporozoites that are transmitted by blood-feeding female Anopheles mosquitoes invade hepatocytes for an initial round of intracellular replication, leading to the release of merozoites that invade and multiply within red blood cells. Sporozoites and merozoites share a number of proteins that are expressed by both stages, including the Apical Membrane Antigen 1 (AMA1) and the Rhoptry Neck Proteins (RONs). Although AMA1 and RONs are essential for merozoite invasion of erythrocytes during asexual blood stage replication of the parasite, their function in sporozoites was still unclear. Here we show that AMA1 interacts with RONs in mature sporozoites. By using DiCre-mediated conditional gene deletion in P. berghei, we demonstrate that loss of AMA1, RON2 or RON4 in sporozoites impairs colonization of the mosquito salivary glands and invasion of mammalian hepatocytes, without affecting transcellular parasite migration. Three-dimensional electron microscopy data showed that sporozoites enter salivary gland cells through a ring-like structure and by forming a transient vacuole. The absence of a functional AMA1-RON complex led to an altered morphology of the entry junction, associated with epithelial cell damage. Our data establish that AMA1 and RONs facilitate host cell invasion across Plasmodium invasive stages, and suggest that sporozoites use the AMA1-RON complex to efficiently and safely enter the mosquito salivary glands to ensure successful parasite transmission. These results open up the possibility of targeting the AMA1-RON complex for transmission-blocking antimalarial strategies. Malaria is caused by Plasmodium parasites, which are transmitted by mosquitoes. Infectious stages of the parasite known as sporozoites colonize the mosquito salivary glands and are injected into the host when the insect probes the skin for blood feeding. Sporozoites rapidly migrate to the host liver, invade hepatocytes and differentiate into the next invasive forms, the merozoites, which invade and replicate inside red blood cells. Merozoites invade cells through a specialized structure, known as the moving junction, formed by proteins called AMA1 and RONs. The role of these proteins in sporozoites remains unclear. Here we used conditional genome editing in a rodent malaria model to generate AMA1- and RON-deficient sporozoites. Phenotypic analysis of the mutants revealed that sporozoites use the AMA1-RON complex twice, first in the mosquito to safely enter the salivary glands and ensure successful parasite transmission, then in the mammalian host liver to establish a replicative niche. Our data establish that AMA1 and RONs facilitate host cell invasion across Plasmodium invasive stages, and might represent potential targets for transmission-blocking antimalarial strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priyanka Fernandes
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, Paris, France
| | - Manon Loubens
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, Paris, France
| | - Rémi Le Borgne
- Institut Jacques Monod, Université Paris Cité, CNRS, UMR 7592, Paris, France
| | - Carine Marinach
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, Paris, France
| | - Béatrice Ardin
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, Paris, France
| | - Sylvie Briquet
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, Paris, France
| | - Laetitia Vincensini
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, Paris, France
| | - Soumia Hamada
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, Paris, France
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, UMS PASS, Plateforme Post-génomique de la Pitié Salpêtrière (P3S), Paris, France
| | - Bénédicte Hoareau-Coudert
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, UMS PASS, Plateforme de cytométrie de la Pitié-Salpêtrière (CyPS), Paris, France
| | - Jean-Marc Verbavatz
- Institut Jacques Monod, Université Paris Cité, CNRS, UMR 7592, Paris, France
| | - Allon Weiner
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, Paris, France
| | - Olivier Silvie
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, Paris, France
- * E-mail:
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20
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Rajaram K, Tewari SG, Wallqvist A, Prigge ST. Metabolic changes accompanying the loss of fumarate hydratase and malate-quinone oxidoreductase in the asexual blood stage of Plasmodium falciparum. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:101897. [PMID: 35398098 PMCID: PMC9118666 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.101897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Revised: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
In the glucose-rich milieu of red blood cells, asexually replicating malarial parasites mainly rely on glycolysis for ATP production, with limited carbon flux through the mitochondrial tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. By contrast, gametocytes and mosquito-stage parasites exhibit an increased dependence on the TCA cycle and oxidative phosphorylation for more economical energy generation. Prior genetic studies supported these stage-specific metabolic preferences by revealing that six of eight TCA cycle enzymes are completely dispensable during the asexual blood stages of Plasmodium falciparum, with only fumarate hydratase (FH) and malate-quinone oxidoreductase (MQO) being refractory to deletion. Several hypotheses have been put forth to explain the possible essentiality of FH and MQO, including their participation in a malate shuttle between the mitochondrial matrix and the cytosol. However, using newer genetic techniques like CRISPR and dimerizable Cre, we were able to generate deletion strains of FH and MQO in P. falciparum. We employed metabolomic analyses to characterize a double knockout mutant of FH and MQO (ΔFM) and identified changes in purine salvage and urea cycle metabolism that may help to limit fumarate accumulation. Correspondingly, we found that the ΔFM mutant was more sensitive to exogenous fumarate, which is known to cause toxicity by modifying and inactivating proteins and metabolites. Overall, our data indicate that P. falciparum is able to adequately compensate for the loss of FH and MQO, rendering them unsuitable targets for drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krithika Rajaram
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Shivendra G Tewari
- Department of Defense Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, U.S. Army Medical Research and Development Command, Ft. Detrick, Maryland, USA; The Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Anders Wallqvist
- Department of Defense Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, U.S. Army Medical Research and Development Command, Ft. Detrick, Maryland, USA
| | - Sean T Prigge
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
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21
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Boonyalai N, Kirativanich K, Thamnurak C, Praditpol C, Vesely BA, Wojnarski M, Griesenbeck JS, Waters NC. A single point mutation in the Plasmodium falciparum 3'-5' exonuclease does not alter piperaquine susceptibility. Malar J 2022; 21:130. [PMID: 35459163 PMCID: PMC9034581 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-022-04148-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The rise in Plasmodium falciparum resistance to dihydroartemisinin–piperaquine (DHA–PPQ) treatment has been documented in the Greater Mekong Subregion with associations with mutations in the P. falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter (pfcrt) and plasmepsin 2 (pfpm2) genes. However, it is unclear whether other genes also play a role with PPQ resistance, such as the E415G mutation in the exonuclease (pfexo) gene. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of this mutation in PPQ resistance by generating transgenic parasites expressing the pfexo-E415G mutant allele. Methods Transgenic parasite clones carrying the E415G mutation in PfEXO of the B5 isolate were derived by CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing and verified using PCR and gene sequencing. Polymorphisms of pfkelch-13, pfcrt, and pfexo were examined by PCR while the copy number variations of pfpm2 were examined by both relative quantitative real-time PCR and the duplication breakpoint assay. Drug sensitivity against a panel of antimalarials, the ring-stage survival assay (RSA), the PPQ survival assay (PSA), and bimodal dose-response curves were used to evaluate antimalarial susceptibility. Results The transgenic line, B5-rexo-E415G-B8, was successfully generated. The PPQ-IC90, %PPQ survival, and the bimodal dose-response clearly showed that E415G mutation in PfEXO of B5 isolate remained fully susceptible to PPQ. Furthermore, growth assays demonstrated that the engineered parasites grew slightly faster than the unmodified parental isolates whereas P. falciparum isolates harbouring pfkelch-13, pfcrt, and pfexo mutations with multiple copies of pfpm2 grew much more slowly. Conclusions Insertion of the E415G mutation in PfEXO did not lead to increased PPQ-IC90 and %PPQ survival, suggesting that this mutation alone may not be associated with PPQ resistance, but could still be an important marker if used in conjunction with other markers for monitoring PPQ-resistant parasites. The results also highlight the importance of monitoring and evaluating suspected genetic mutations with regard to parasite fitness and resistance. Supplementary information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12936-022-04148-z.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nonlawat Boonyalai
- Department of Bacterial and Parasitic Diseases, Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences, Bangkok, Thailand.
| | - Kirakarn Kirativanich
- Department of Bacterial and Parasitic Diseases, Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Chatchadaporn Thamnurak
- Department of Bacterial and Parasitic Diseases, Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Chantida Praditpol
- Department of Bacterial and Parasitic Diseases, Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Brian A Vesely
- Department of Bacterial and Parasitic Diseases, Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Mariusz Wojnarski
- Department of Bacterial and Parasitic Diseases, Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - John S Griesenbeck
- Department of Bacterial and Parasitic Diseases, Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Norman C Waters
- Department of Bacterial and Parasitic Diseases, Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences, Bangkok, Thailand
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22
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Abstract
In 2015, we reported the development of a rapid protein degradation tool in the malaria parasite Plasmodium berghei. This commentary discusses the questions and events that led to developing this technology, as well as future outlooks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nisha Philip
- Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FL, UK.
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23
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Cárdenas P, Esherick LY, Chambonnier G, Dey S, Turlo CV, Nasamu AS, Niles JC. GeneTargeter: Automated In Silico Design for Genome Editing in the Malaria Parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. CRISPR J 2022; 5:155-164. [PMID: 35191751 PMCID: PMC8892962 DOI: 10.1089/crispr.2021.0069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Functional characterization of the multitude of poorly described proteins in the human malarial pathogen, Plasmodium falciparum, requires tools to enable genome-scale perturbation studies. Here, we present GeneTargeter (genetargeter.mit.edu), a software tool for automating the design of homology-directed repair donor vectors to achieve gene knockouts, conditional knockdowns, and epitope tagging of P. falciparum genes. We demonstrate GeneTargeter-facilitated genome-scale design of six different types of knockout and conditional knockdown constructs for the P. falciparum genome and validate the computational design process experimentally with successful donor vector assembly and transfection. The software's modular nature accommodates arbitrary destination vectors and allows customizable designs that extend the genome manipulation outcomes attainable in Plasmodium and other organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Cárdenas
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Lisl Y. Esherick
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Gaël Chambonnier
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Sumanta Dey
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Christopher V. Turlo
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Armiyaw Sebastian Nasamu
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jacquin C. Niles
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.,Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.,Address correspondence to: Jacquin C. Niles, MD, PhD, Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Room 56-341, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139-4307, USA,
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24
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Ramaprasad A, Burda PC, Calvani E, Sait AJ, Palma-Duran SA, Withers-Martinez C, Hackett F, Macrae J, Collinson L, Gilberger TW, Blackman MJ. A choline-releasing glycerophosphodiesterase essential for phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis and blood stage development in the malaria parasite. eLife 2022; 11:82207. [PMID: 36576255 PMCID: PMC9886279 DOI: 10.7554/elife.82207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum synthesizes significant amounts of phospholipids to meet the demands of replication within red blood cells. De novo phosphatidylcholine (PC) biosynthesis via the Kennedy pathway is essential, requiring choline that is primarily sourced from host serum lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPC). LysoPC also acts as an environmental sensor to regulate parasite sexual differentiation. Despite these critical roles for host lysoPC, the enzyme(s) involved in its breakdown to free choline for PC synthesis are unknown. Here, we show that a parasite glycerophosphodiesterase (PfGDPD) is indispensable for blood stage parasite proliferation. Exogenous choline rescues growth of PfGDPD-null parasites, directly linking PfGDPD function to choline incorporation. Genetic ablation of PfGDPD reduces choline uptake from lysoPC, resulting in depletion of several PC species in the parasite, whilst purified PfGDPD releases choline from glycerophosphocholine in vitro. Our results identify PfGDPD as a choline-releasing glycerophosphodiesterase that mediates a critical step in PC biosynthesis and parasite survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhinay Ramaprasad
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Paul-Christian Burda
- Centre for Structural Systems BiologyHamburgGermany,Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical MedicineHamburgGermany,University of HamburgHamburgGermany
| | - Enrica Calvani
- Metabolomics Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Aaron J Sait
- Electron Microscopy Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | | | | | - Fiona Hackett
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - James Macrae
- Metabolomics Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Lucy Collinson
- Electron Microscopy Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Tim Wolf Gilberger
- Centre for Structural Systems BiologyHamburgGermany,Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical MedicineHamburgGermany,University of HamburgHamburgGermany
| | - Michael J Blackman
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom,Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical MedicineLondonUnited Kingdom
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25
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Ressurreição M, Moon RW, Baker DA, van Ooij C. Synchronisation of Plasmodium falciparum and P. knowlesi In Vitro Cultures Using a Highly Specific Protein Kinase Inhibitor. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2470:101-120. [PMID: 35881342 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2189-9_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
Synchronisation of Plasmodium cultures is essential to investigate the complexities of time-dependent events associated with the asexual blood stage of the malaria parasite life cycle. Here we describe a procedure using ML10, a highly specific inhibitor of the parasite cyclic GMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG), to attain high synchronicity of Plasmodium falciparum and P. knowlesi asexual blood-stage cultures and to obtain high levels of arrested mature schizonts as well as viable released merozoites. Additionally, we describe how to use ML10 to improve the transfection efficiency of P. falciparum parasites and also how to derive the half maximal effective concentration (EC50) of ML10 in other P. falciparum laboratory lines and clinical isolates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margarida Ressurreição
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Robert William Moon
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - David Andrew Baker
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Christiaan van Ooij
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK.
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26
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Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum, the Apicomplexan parasite that causes the most severe form of human malaria, divides via schizogony during the asexual blood stage of its life cycle. In this method of cell division, multiple daughter cells are generated from a single schizont by segmentation. During segmentation, the basal complex forms at the basal end of the nascent daughter parasites and likely facilitates cell shape and cytokinesis. The requirement and function for each of the individual protein components within the basal complex remain largely unknown in P. falciparum. In this work, we demonstrate that the P. falciparum membrane occupation and recognition nexus repeat-containing protein 1 (PfMORN1) is not required for asexual replication. Following inducible knockout of PfMORN1, we find no detectable defect in asexual parasite morphology or replicative fitness. IMPORTANCEPlasmodium falciparum parasites cause the most severe form of human malaria. During the clinically relevant blood stage of its life cycle, the parasites divide via schizogony. In this divergent method of cell division, the components for multiple daughter cells are generated within a common cytoplasm. At the end of schizogony, segmentation partitions the organelles into invasive daughter parasites. The basal complex is a ring-shaped molecular machine that is critical for segmentation. The requirement for individual proteins within the basal complex is incompletely understood. We demonstrate that the PfMORN1 protein is dispensable for blood stage replication of P. falciparum. This result highlights important differences between Plasmodium parasites and Toxoplasma gondii, where the ortholog T. gondii MORN1 (TgMORN1) is required for asexual replication.
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27
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An Uninvited Seat at the Dinner Table: How Apicomplexan Parasites Scavenge Nutrients from the Host. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9122592. [PMID: 34946193 PMCID: PMC8707601 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9122592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Obligate intracellular parasites have evolved a remarkable assortment of strategies to scavenge nutrients from the host cells they parasitize. Most apicomplexans form a parasitophorous vacuole (PV) within the invaded cell, a replicative niche within which they survive and multiply. As well as providing a physical barrier against host cell defense mechanisms, the PV membrane (PVM) is also an important site of nutrient uptake that is essential for the parasites to sustain their metabolism. This means nutrients in the extracellular milieu are separated from parasite metabolic machinery by three different membranes, the host plasma membrane, the PVM, and the parasite plasma membrane (PPM). In order to facilitate nutrient transport from the extracellular environment into the parasite itself, transporters on the host cell membrane of invaded cells can be modified by secreted and exported parasite proteins to maximize uptake of key substrates to meet their metabolic demand. To overcome the second barrier, the PVM, apicomplexan parasites secrete proteins contained in the dense granules that remodel the vacuole and make the membrane permissive to important nutrients. This bulk flow of host nutrients is followed by a more selective uptake of substrates at the PPM that is operated by specific transporters of this third barrier. In this review, we recapitulate and compare the strategies developed by Apicomplexa to scavenge nutrients from their hosts, with particular emphasis on transporters at the parasite plasma membrane and vacuolar solute transporters on the parasite intracellular digestive organelle.
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28
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Hitz E, Wiedemar N, Passecker A, Graça BAS, Scheurer C, Wittlin S, Brancucci NMB, Vakonakis I, Mäser P, Voss TS. The 3-phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase 1 is an essential upstream activator of protein kinase A in malaria parasites. PLoS Biol 2021; 19:e3001483. [PMID: 34879056 PMCID: PMC8687544 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-dependent protein kinase A (PKA) signalling is essential for the proliferation of Plasmodium falciparum malaria blood stage parasites. The mechanisms regulating the activity of the catalytic subunit PfPKAc, however, are only partially understood, and PfPKAc function has not been investigated in gametocytes, the sexual blood stage forms that are essential for malaria transmission. By studying a conditional PfPKAc knockdown (cKD) mutant, we confirm the essential role for PfPKAc in erythrocyte invasion by merozoites and show that PfPKAc is involved in regulating gametocyte deformability. We furthermore demonstrate that overexpression of PfPKAc is lethal and kills parasites at the early phase of schizogony. Strikingly, whole genome sequencing (WGS) of parasite mutants selected to tolerate increased PfPKAc expression levels identified missense mutations exclusively in the gene encoding the parasite orthologue of 3-phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase-1 (PfPDK1). Using targeted mutagenesis, we demonstrate that PfPDK1 is required to activate PfPKAc and that T189 in the PfPKAc activation loop is the crucial target residue in this process. In summary, our results corroborate the importance of tight regulation of PfPKA signalling for parasite survival and imply that PfPDK1 acts as a crucial upstream regulator in this pathway and potential new drug target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Hitz
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Natalie Wiedemar
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Armin Passecker
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Beatriz A. S. Graça
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christian Scheurer
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Sergio Wittlin
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas M. B. Brancucci
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Ioannis Vakonakis
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Pascal Mäser
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Till S. Voss
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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29
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Wang S, Zeng W, Zhao W, Xiang Z, Zhao H, Yang Q, Li X, Duan M, Li X, Wang X, Si Y, Rosenthal BM, Yang Z. Comparison of in vitro transformation efficiency methods for Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2021; 247:111432. [PMID: 34826523 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2021.111432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Revised: 11/03/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Poor efficiency plagues conventional methods to transfect Plasmodium falciparum with genetic modifications, impeding research aimed at limiting the damage wrought by this agent of severe malaria. Here, we sought and documented improvements, using fluoresce imaging, cell sorting, and drug selection as means to measure efficiency. Through the transfection of EGFP plasmid, the transfection efficiency of the three methods used in this study was as high as 10-3. A method that pre-loaded uninfected erythrocytes with plasmids using the Bio-Rad Gene Pulser Xcell achieved the highest efficiency (0.48%±0.06%), twice the efficiency of a method using nuclear transfection of ring stages employing the 4D-NucleofectorTM X Kit L. We also evaluated an approach using the Nucleofactor system to transform schizont stages. We considered efficiency and the time required to complete drug screening experiments when evaluating transfection methods. Fluorescence measurements confirmed greater efficiencies for the Pre-load method (52.4% vs. 25%; P < 0.0001), but the Nuc-Ring method required less time to complete drug selection experiments following CRISPR/Cas9 editing. These data should benefit future studies seeking to remove or modify genes of P. falciparum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siqi Wang
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan Province 650500, China; National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (Chinese Center for Tropical Diseases Research), NHC Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology (National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention), Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Weilin Zeng
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan Province 650500, China
| | - Wei Zhao
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan Province 650500, China
| | - Zheng Xiang
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan Province 650500, China
| | - Hui Zhao
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan Province 650500, China
| | - Qi Yang
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan Province 650500, China
| | - Xinxin Li
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan Province 650500, China
| | - Mengxi Duan
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan Province 650500, China
| | - Xiaosong Li
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan Province 650500, China
| | - Xun Wang
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan Province 650500, China
| | - Yu Si
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan Province 650500, China
| | - Benjamin M Rosenthal
- Animal Parasitic Disease Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - Zhaoqing Yang
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan Province 650500, China.
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30
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Bahl V, Chaddha K, Mian SY, Holder AA, Knuepfer E, Gaur D. Genetic disruption of Plasmodium falciparum Merozoite surface antigen 180 (PfMSA180) suggests an essential role during parasite egress from erythrocytes. Sci Rep 2021; 11:19183. [PMID: 34584166 PMCID: PMC8479079 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-98707-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum, the parasite responsible for severe malaria, develops within erythrocytes. Merozoite invasion and subsequent egress of intraerythrocytic parasites are essential for this erythrocytic cycle, parasite survival and pathogenesis. In the present study, we report the essential role of a novel protein, P. falciparum Merozoite Surface Antigen 180 (PfMSA180), which is conserved across Plasmodium species and recently shown to be associated with the P. vivax merozoite surface. Here, we studied MSA180 expression, processing, localization and function in P. falciparum blood stages. Initially we examined its role in invasion, a process mediated by multiple ligand-receptor interactions and an attractive step for targeting with inhibitory antibodies through the development of a malaria vaccine. Using antibodies specific for different regions of PfMSA180, together with a parasite containing a conditional pfmsa180-gene knockout generated using CRISPR/Cas9 and DiCre recombinase technology, we demonstrate that this protein is unlikely to play a crucial role in erythrocyte invasion. However, deletion of the pfmsa180 gene resulted in a severe egress defect, preventing schizont rupture and blocking the erythrocytic cycle. Our study highlights an essential role of PfMSA180 in parasite egress, which could be targeted through the development of a novel malaria intervention strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanndita Bahl
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vaccine Research, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India.
| | - Kritika Chaddha
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vaccine Research, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Syed Yusuf Mian
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vaccine Research, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Anthony A Holder
- Malaria Parasitology Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London, NW1 1AT, UK
| | - Ellen Knuepfer
- Malaria Parasitology Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London, NW1 1AT, UK. .,The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hatfield, AL9 7TA, Hertfordshire, UK.
| | - Deepak Gaur
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vaccine Research, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
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31
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Briquet S, Gissot M, Silvie O. A toolbox for conditional control of gene expression in apicomplexan parasites. Mol Microbiol 2021; 117:618-631. [PMID: 34564906 PMCID: PMC9293482 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.14821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Apicomplexan parasites encompass diverse pathogens for humans and animals, including the causative agents of malaria and toxoplasmosis, Plasmodium spp. and Toxoplasma gondii. Genetic manipulation of these parasites has become central to explore parasite biology, unravel gene function and identify new targets for therapeutic strategies. Tremendous progress has been achieved over the past years with the advent of next generation sequencing and powerful genome editing methods. In particular, various methods for conditional gene expression have been developed in both Plasmodium and Toxoplasma to knockout or knockdown essential genes, or for inducible expression of master developmental regulators or mutant versions of proteins. Conditional gene expression can be achieved at three distinct levels. At the DNA level, inducible site‐specific recombinases allow conditional genome editing. At the RNA level, regulation can be achieved during transcription, using stage‐specific or regulatable promoters, or post‐transcriptionally through alteration of mRNA stability or translation. At the protein level, several systems have been developed for inducible degradation or displacement of a protein of interest. In this review, we provide an overview of current systems for conditional control of gene expression in Plasmodium and Toxoplasma parasites, highlighting the advantages and limitations of each approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvie Briquet
- INSERM, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - Mathieu Gissot
- CNRS, Inserm, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, Center for Infection and Immunity of Lille, CIIL, Univ. Lille, Lille, France
| | - Olivier Silvie
- INSERM, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
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Nishi T, Shinzawa N, Yuda M, Iwanaga S. Highly efficient CRISPR/Cas9 system in Plasmodium falciparum using Cas9-expressing parasites and a linear donor template. Sci Rep 2021; 11:18501. [PMID: 34531479 PMCID: PMC8445982 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-97984-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 08/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The CRISPR/Cas9 system is a powerful genetic engineering technology for Plasmodium falciparum. We here report further improvement of the CRISPR/Cas9 system by combining the Cas9-expressing parasite with a liner donor template DNA. The Cas9-expressing parasite was generated by inserting the cas9 gene in the genome by double crossover recombination. The site-directed mutagenesis and the fusion of fluorescence protein was achieved within two weeks with high efficiency (> 85%), by transfecting the schizonts of the Cas9-expressing parasite with the liner donor template and the plasmid carrying the sgRNAs. Notably, there were neither off-target mutations in the resultant transgenic parasites nor unexpected recombination, that are the technical problems of the current CRISPR/Cas9 system. Furthermore, with our system, two genes on different chromosomes were successfully modified in single transfection. Because of its high efficiency and robustness, our improved CRISPR/Cas9 system will become a standard technique for genetic engineering of P. falciparum, which dramatically advances future studies of this parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsubasa Nishi
- Laboratory of Medical Zoology, Department of Medicine, Mie University, Mie, Japan
| | - Naoaki Shinzawa
- Department of Environmental Parasitology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masao Yuda
- Laboratory of Medical Zoology, Department of Medicine, Mie University, Mie, Japan
| | - Shiroh Iwanaga
- Department of Molecular Protozoology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan.
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Ishizaki T, Asada M, Hakimi H, Chaiyawong N, Kegawa Y, Yahata K, Kaneko O. cAMP-dependent protein kinase regulates secretion of apical membrane antigen 1 (AMA1) in Plasmodium yoelii. Parasitol Int 2021; 85:102435. [PMID: 34390881 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2021.102435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Revised: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Malaria remains a heavy global burden on human health, and it is important to understand the molecular and cellular biology of the parasite to find targets for drug and vaccine development. The mouse malaria model is an essential tool to characterize the function of identified molecules; however, robust technologies for targeted gene deletions are still poorly developed for the widely used rodent malaria parasite, Plasmodium yoelii. To overcome this problem, we established a DiCre-loxP inducible knockout (iKO) system in P. yoelii, which showed more than 80% excision efficacy of the target locus and more than 90% reduction of locus transcripts 24 h (one cell cycle) after RAP administration. Using this developed system, cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKAc) was inducibly disrupted and the phenotypes of the resulting PKAc-iKO parasites were analyzed. We found that PKAc-iKO parasites showed severe growth and erythrocyte invasion defects. We also found that disruption of PKAc impaired the secretion of AMA1 in P. yoelii, in contrast to a report showing no role of PKAc in AMA1 secretion in P. falciparum. This discrepancy may be related to the difference in the timing of AMA1 distribution to the merozoite surface, which occurs just after egress for P. falciparum, but after several minutes for P. yoelii. Secretions of PyEBL, Py235, and RON2 were not affected by the disruption of PKAc in P. yoelii. PyRON2 was already secreted to the merozoite surface immediately after merozoite egress, which is inconsistent with the current model that RON2 is injected into the erythrocyte cytosol. Further investigations are required to understand the role of RON2 exposed on the merozoite surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahiro Ishizaki
- Program for Nurturing Global Leaders in Tropical and Emerging Communicable Diseases, Graduate school of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan; Department of Protozoology, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN), Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan; Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden, Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, Umeå 901 87, Sweden
| | - Masahito Asada
- Program for Nurturing Global Leaders in Tropical and Emerging Communicable Diseases, Graduate school of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan; Department of Protozoology, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN), Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan; National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Nishi 2-11, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-0834, Japan.
| | - Hassan Hakimi
- Department of Protozoology, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN), Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan; Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, College station, TX 77843, USA.
| | - Nattawat Chaiyawong
- Program for Nurturing Global Leaders in Tropical and Emerging Communicable Diseases, Graduate school of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan; Department of Protozoology, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN), Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan
| | - Yuto Kegawa
- Program for Nurturing Global Leaders in Tropical and Emerging Communicable Diseases, Graduate school of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan; Department of Protozoology, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN), Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan; Section on Integrative Biophysics, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institutes of Child Health and Human Development, National Institute of Health, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Mary land 20892, USA
| | - Kazuhide Yahata
- Department of Protozoology, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN), Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan.
| | - Osamu Kaneko
- Program for Nurturing Global Leaders in Tropical and Emerging Communicable Diseases, Graduate school of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan; Department of Protozoology, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN), Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan.
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34
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Fernandes P, Loubens M, Silvie O, Briquet S. Conditional Gene Deletion in Mammalian and Mosquito Stages of Plasmodium berghei Using Dimerizable Cre Recombinase. Methods Mol Biol 2021; 2369:101-120. [PMID: 34313986 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1681-9_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/17/2023]
Abstract
Genome editing in the malaria parasite Plasmodium relies on homologous recombination and requires parasite transfection in asexual blood stages. Therefore, conditional genetic approaches are needed to delete genes that are essential during blood stage replication. Among these, the dimerizable Cre (DiCre) recombinase system has emerged as a powerful approach for conditional gene knockout in Plasmodium parasites. In this system, the Cre recombinase is expressed in the form of two separate, enzymatically inactive polypeptides. Rapamycin-induced heterodimerization of the two components restores recombinase activity, leading to site-specific excision of floxed DNA sequences. Here, we describe methods to generate genetically modified DiCre-expressing Plasmodium berghei mutants by introducing Lox sites upstream and downstream of a gene of interest and to induce conditional excision of the floxed gene in different stages of the parasite life cycle. Administration of rapamycin to P. berghei-infected mice allows conditional gene deletion in the asexual erythrocytic stages. Rapamycin-induced gene excision can also be achieved in P. berghei sexual blood stages prior to transmission to mosquitoes, or during sporogony by treating P. berghei-infected mosquitoes, both methods allowing functional studies in P. berghei mosquito stages. Finally, rapamycin can be administered to in vitro cell cultures in order to induce gene excision in P. berghei liver stages. Subsequent phenotyping allows for the analysis of essential gene function across the parasite life cycle stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priyanka Fernandes
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Manon Loubens
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Olivier Silvie
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Sylvie Briquet
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France.
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35
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Behrens HM, Schmidt S, Spielmann T. The newly discovered role of endocytosis in artemisinin resistance. Med Res Rev 2021; 41:2998-3022. [PMID: 34309894 DOI: 10.1002/med.21848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 07/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Artemisinin and its derivatives (ART) are the cornerstone of malaria treatment as part of artemisinin combination therapy (ACT). However, reduced susceptibility to artemisinin as well as its partner drugs threatens the usefulness of ACTs. Single point mutations in the parasite protein Kelch13 (K13) are necessary and sufficient for the reduced sensitivity of malaria parasites to ART but several alternative mechanisms for this resistance have been proposed. Recent work found that K13 is involved in the endocytosis of host cell cytosol and indicated that this is the process responsible for resistance in parasites with mutated K13. These studies also identified a series of further proteins that act together with K13 in the same pathway, including previously suspected resistance proteins such as UBP1 and AP-2μ. Here, we give a brief overview of artemisinin resistance, present the recent evidence of the role of endocytosis in ART resistance and discuss previous hypotheses in light of this new evidence. We also give an outlook on how the new insights might affect future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Michaela Behrens
- Molecular Biology and Immunology Section, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Sabine Schmidt
- Molecular Biology and Immunology Section, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Tobias Spielmann
- Molecular Biology and Immunology Section, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
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36
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Okombo J, Kanai M, Deni I, Fidock DA. Genomic and Genetic Approaches to Studying Antimalarial Drug Resistance and Plasmodium Biology. Trends Parasitol 2021; 37:476-492. [PMID: 33715941 PMCID: PMC8162148 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2021.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Revised: 02/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Recent progress in genomics and molecular genetics has empowered novel approaches to study gene functions in disease-causing pathogens. In the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum, the application of genome-based analyses, site-directed genome editing, and genetic systems that allow for temporal and quantitative regulation of gene and protein expression have been invaluable in defining the genetic basis of antimalarial resistance and elucidating candidate targets to accelerate drug discovery efforts. Using examples from recent studies, we review applications of some of these approaches in advancing our understanding of Plasmodium biology and illustrate their contributions and limitations in characterizing parasite genomic loci associated with antimalarial drug responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Okombo
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Mariko Kanai
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Ioanna Deni
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - David A Fidock
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA; Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA.
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37
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Lasonder E, More K, Singh S, Haidar M, Bertinetti D, Kennedy EJ, Herberg FW, Holder AA, Langsley G, Chitnis CE. cAMP-Dependent Signaling Pathways as Potential Targets for Inhibition of Plasmodium falciparum Blood Stages. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:684005. [PMID: 34108954 PMCID: PMC8183823 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.684005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
We review the role of signaling pathways in regulation of the key processes of merozoite egress and red blood cell invasion by Plasmodium falciparum and, in particular, the importance of the second messengers, cAMP and Ca2+, and cyclic nucleotide dependent kinases. cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) is comprised of cAMP-binding regulatory, and catalytic subunits. The less well conserved cAMP-binding pockets should make cAMP analogs attractive drug leads, but this approach is compromised by the poor membrane permeability of cyclic nucleotides. We discuss how the conserved nature of ATP-binding pockets makes ATP analogs inherently prone to off-target effects and how ATP analogs and genetic manipulation can be useful research tools to examine this. We suggest that targeting PKA interaction partners as well as substrates, or developing inhibitors based on PKA interaction sites or phosphorylation sites in PKA substrates, may provide viable alternative approaches for the development of anti-malarial drugs. Proximity of PKA to a substrate is necessary for substrate phosphorylation, but the P. falciparum genome encodes few recognizable A-kinase anchor proteins (AKAPs), suggesting the importance of PKA-regulatory subunit myristylation and membrane association in determining substrate preference. We also discuss how Pf14-3-3 assembles a phosphorylation-dependent signaling complex that includes PKA and calcium dependent protein kinase 1 (CDPK1) and how this complex may be critical for merozoite invasion, and a target to block parasite growth. We compare altered phosphorylation levels in intracellular and egressed merozoites to identify potential PKA substrates. Finally, as host PKA may have a critical role in supporting intracellular parasite development, we discuss its role at other stages of the life cycle, as well as in other apicomplexan infections. Throughout our review we propose possible new directions for the therapeutic exploitation of cAMP-PKA-signaling in malaria and other diseases caused by apicomplexan parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edwin Lasonder
- Department of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Kunal More
- Unité de Biologie de Plasmodium et Vaccins, Département de Parasites et Insectes Vecteurs, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Shailja Singh
- Special Centre for Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Malak Haidar
- Laboratoire de Biologie Comparative des Apicomplexes, Faculté de Médecine, Université Paris Descartes - Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France.,INSERM U1016, CNRS UMR 8104, Cochin Institute, Paris, France
| | | | - Eileen J Kennedy
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | | | - Anthony A Holder
- Malaria Parasitology Laboratory, Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Gordon Langsley
- Laboratoire de Biologie Comparative des Apicomplexes, Faculté de Médecine, Université Paris Descartes - Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France.,INSERM U1016, CNRS UMR 8104, Cochin Institute, Paris, France
| | - Chetan E Chitnis
- Unité de Biologie de Plasmodium et Vaccins, Département de Parasites et Insectes Vecteurs, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
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38
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Tan MSY, Koussis K, Withers-Martinez C, Howell SA, Thomas JA, Hackett F, Knuepfer E, Shen M, Hall MD, Snijders AP, Blackman MJ. Autocatalytic activation of a malarial egress protease is druggable and requires a protein cofactor. EMBO J 2021; 40:e107226. [PMID: 33932049 PMCID: PMC8167364 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2020107226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Revised: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria parasite egress from host erythrocytes (RBCs) is regulated by discharge of a parasite serine protease called SUB1 into the parasitophorous vacuole (PV). There, SUB1 activates a PV‐resident cysteine protease called SERA6, enabling host RBC rupture through SERA6‐mediated degradation of the RBC cytoskeleton protein β‐spectrin. Here, we show that the activation of Plasmodium falciparum SERA6 involves a second, autocatalytic step that is triggered by SUB1 cleavage. Unexpectedly, autoproteolytic maturation of SERA6 requires interaction in multimolecular complexes with a distinct PV‐located protein cofactor, MSA180, that is itself a SUB1 substrate. Genetic ablation of MSA180 mimics SERA6 disruption, producing a fatal block in β‐spectrin cleavage and RBC rupture. Drug‐like inhibitors of SERA6 autoprocessing similarly prevent β‐spectrin cleavage and egress in both P. falciparum and the emerging zoonotic pathogen P. knowlesi. Our results elucidate the egress pathway and identify SERA6 as a target for a new class of antimalarial drugs designed to prevent disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele S Y Tan
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
| | | | | | - Steven A Howell
- Protein Analysis and Proteomics Platform, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
| | - James A Thomas
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Fiona Hackett
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
| | - Ellen Knuepfer
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Min Shen
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Matthew D Hall
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Ambrosius P Snijders
- Protein Analysis and Proteomics Platform, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
| | - Michael J Blackman
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK.,Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
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Abstract
Malaria, caused by infection with Plasmodium parasites, remains a significant global health concern. For decades, genetic intractability and limited tools hindered our ability to study essential proteins and pathways in Plasmodium falciparum, the parasite associated with the most severe malaria cases. However, recent years have seen major leaps forward in the ability to genetically manipulate P. falciparum parasites and conditionally control protein expression/function. The conditional knockdown systems used in P. falciparum target all 3 components of the central dogma, allowing researchers to conditionally control gene expression, translation, and protein function. Here, we review some of the common knockdown systems that have been adapted or developed for use in P. falciparum. Much of the work done using conditional knockdown approaches has been performed in asexual, blood-stage parasites, but we also highlight their uses in other parts of the life cycle and discuss new ways of applying these systems outside of the intraerythrocytic stages. With the use of these tools, the field’s understanding of parasite biology is ever increasing, and promising new pathways for antimalarial drug development are being discovered.
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40
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An Alveolata secretory machinery adapted to parasite host cell invasion. Nat Microbiol 2021; 6:425-434. [PMID: 33495622 PMCID: PMC8886610 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-020-00854-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Apicomplexa are unicellular eukaryotes and obligate intracellular parasites, including Plasmodium (the causative agent of malaria) and Toxoplasma (one of the most widespread zoonotic pathogens). Rhoptries, one of their specialized secretory organelles, undergo regulated exocytosis during invasion1. Rhoptry proteins are injected directly into the host cell to support invasion and subversion of host immune function2. The mechanism by which they are discharged is unclear and appears distinct from those in bacteria, yeast, animals and plants. Here, we show that rhoptry secretion in Apicomplexa shares structural and genetic elements with the exocytic machinery of ciliates, their free-living relatives. Rhoptry exocytosis depends on intramembranous particles in the shape of a rosette embedded into the plasma membrane of the parasite apex. Formation of this rosette requires multiple non-discharge (Nd) proteins conserved and restricted to Ciliata, Dinoflagellata and Apicomplexa that together constitute the superphylum Alveolata. We identified Nd6 at the site of exocytosis in association with an apical vesicle. Sandwiched between the rosette and the tip of the rhoptry, this vesicle appears as a central element of the rhoptry secretion machine. Our results describe a conserved secretion system that was adapted to provide defence for free-living unicellular eukaryotes and host cell injection in intracellular parasites.
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41
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Counihan NA, Modak JK, de Koning-Ward TF. How Malaria Parasites Acquire Nutrients From Their Host. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:649184. [PMID: 33842474 PMCID: PMC8027349 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.649184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium parasites responsible for the disease malaria reside within erythrocytes. Inside this niche host cell, parasites internalize and digest host hemoglobin to source amino acids required for protein production. However, hemoglobin does not contain isoleucine, an amino acid essential for Plasmodium growth, and the parasite cannot synthesize it de novo. The parasite is also more metabolically active than its host cell, and the rate at which some nutrients are consumed exceeds the rate at which they can be taken up by erythrocyte transporters. To overcome these constraints, Plasmodium parasites increase the permeability of the erythrocyte membrane to isoleucine and other low-molecular-weight solutes it requires for growth by forming new permeation pathways (NPPs). In addition to the erythrocyte membrane, host nutrients also need to cross the encasing parasitophorous vacuole membrane (PVM) and the parasite plasma membrane to access the parasite. This review outlines recent advances that have been made in identifying the molecular constituents of the NPPs, the PVM nutrient channel, and the endocytic apparatus that transports host hemoglobin and identifies key knowledge gaps that remain. Importantly, blocking the ability of Plasmodium to source essential nutrients is lethal to the parasite, and thus, components of these key pathways represent potential antimalaria drug targets.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joyanta K Modak
- School of Medicine, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, VIC, Australia
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42
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Hitz E, Grüninger O, Passecker A, Wyss M, Scheurer C, Wittlin S, Beck HP, Brancucci NMB, Voss TS. The catalytic subunit of Plasmodium falciparum casein kinase 2 is essential for gametocytogenesis. Commun Biol 2021; 4:336. [PMID: 33712726 PMCID: PMC7954856 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-021-01873-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Casein kinase 2 (CK2) is a pleiotropic kinase phosphorylating substrates in different cellular compartments in eukaryotes. In the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum, PfCK2 is vital for asexual proliferation of blood-stage parasites. Here, we applied CRISPR/Cas9-based gene editing to investigate the function of the PfCK2α catalytic subunit in gametocytes, the sexual forms of the parasite that are essential for malaria transmission. We show that PfCK2α localizes to the nucleus and cytoplasm in asexual and sexual parasites alike. Conditional knockdown of PfCK2α expression prevented the transition of stage IV into transmission-competent stage V gametocytes, whereas the conditional knockout of pfck2a completely blocked gametocyte maturation already at an earlier stage of sexual differentiation. In summary, our results demonstrate that PfCK2α is not only essential for asexual but also sexual development of P. falciparum blood-stage parasites and encourage studies exploring PfCK2α as a potential target for dual-active antimalarial drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Hitz
- grid.416786.a0000 0004 0587 0574Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4051 Basel, Switzerland ,grid.6612.30000 0004 1937 0642University of Basel, 4001 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Olivia Grüninger
- grid.416786.a0000 0004 0587 0574Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4051 Basel, Switzerland ,grid.6612.30000 0004 1937 0642University of Basel, 4001 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Armin Passecker
- grid.416786.a0000 0004 0587 0574Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4051 Basel, Switzerland ,grid.6612.30000 0004 1937 0642University of Basel, 4001 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Matthias Wyss
- grid.416786.a0000 0004 0587 0574Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4051 Basel, Switzerland ,grid.6612.30000 0004 1937 0642University of Basel, 4001 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christian Scheurer
- grid.416786.a0000 0004 0587 0574Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4051 Basel, Switzerland ,grid.6612.30000 0004 1937 0642University of Basel, 4001 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Sergio Wittlin
- grid.416786.a0000 0004 0587 0574Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4051 Basel, Switzerland ,grid.6612.30000 0004 1937 0642University of Basel, 4001 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Hans-Peter Beck
- grid.416786.a0000 0004 0587 0574Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4051 Basel, Switzerland ,grid.6612.30000 0004 1937 0642University of Basel, 4001 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas M. B. Brancucci
- grid.416786.a0000 0004 0587 0574Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4051 Basel, Switzerland ,grid.6612.30000 0004 1937 0642University of Basel, 4001 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Till S. Voss
- grid.416786.a0000 0004 0587 0574Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4051 Basel, Switzerland ,grid.6612.30000 0004 1937 0642University of Basel, 4001 Basel, Switzerland
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43
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Balestra AC, Koussis K, Klages N, Howell SA, Flynn HR, Bantscheff M, Pasquarello C, Perrin AJ, Brusini L, Arboit P, Sanz O, Castaño LPB, Withers-Martinez C, Hainard A, Ghidelli-Disse S, Snijders AP, Baker DA, Blackman MJ, Brochet M. Ca 2+ signals critical for egress and gametogenesis in malaria parasites depend on a multipass membrane protein that interacts with PKG. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:7/13/eabe5396. [PMID: 33762339 PMCID: PMC7990342 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abe5396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Calcium signaling regulated by the cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG) controls key life cycle transitions in the malaria parasite. However, how calcium is mobilized from intracellular stores in the absence of canonical calcium channels in Plasmodium is unknown. Here, we identify a multipass membrane protein, ICM1, with homology to transporters and calcium channels that is tightly associated with PKG in both asexual blood stages and transmission stages. Phosphoproteomic analyses reveal multiple ICM1 phosphorylation events dependent on PKG activity. Stage-specific depletion of Plasmodium berghei ICM1 prevents gametogenesis due to a block in intracellular calcium mobilization, while conditional loss of Plasmodium falciparum ICM1 is detrimental for the parasite resulting in severely reduced calcium mobilization, defective egress, and lack of invasion. Our findings suggest that ICM1 is a key missing link in transducing PKG-dependent signals and provide previously unknown insights into atypical calcium homeostasis in malaria parasites essential for pathology and disease transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurélia C Balestra
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Konstantinos Koussis
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London NW1 1AT, UK.
| | - Natacha Klages
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Steven A Howell
- Mass Spectrometry Proteomics Platform, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
| | - Helen R Flynn
- Mass Spectrometry Proteomics Platform, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
| | - Marcus Bantscheff
- Cellzome GmbH, Molecular Discovery Research, GlaxoSmithKline, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Carla Pasquarello
- Proteomics Core Facility, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Abigail J Perrin
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London NW1 1AT, UK
| | - Lorenzo Brusini
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Patrizia Arboit
- Proteomics Core Facility, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Olalla Sanz
- Diseases of the Developing World Global Health Pharma Unit, GlaxoSmithKline, 28760 Tres Cantos, Spain
| | | | | | - Alexandre Hainard
- Proteomics Core Facility, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Sonja Ghidelli-Disse
- Cellzome GmbH, Molecular Discovery Research, GlaxoSmithKline, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | | | - David A Baker
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Michael J Blackman
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London NW1 1AT, UK.
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Mathieu Brochet
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland.
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Bui HTN, Passecker A, Brancucci NMB, Voss TS. Investigation of Heterochromatin Protein 1 Function in the Malaria Parasite Plasmodium falciparum Using a Conditional Domain Deletion and Swapping Approach. mSphere 2021; 6:e01220-20. [PMID: 33536327 PMCID: PMC7860992 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.01220-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum encodes a single ortholog of heterochromatin protein 1 (PfHP1) that plays a crucial role in the epigenetic regulation of various survival-related processes. PfHP1 is essential for parasite proliferation and the heritable silencing of genes linked to antigenic variation, host cell invasion, and sexual conversion. Here, we employed CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing combined with the DiCre/loxP system to investigate how the PfHP1 chromodomain (CD), hinge domain, and chromoshadow domain (CSD) contribute to overall PfHP1 function. We show that the 76 C-terminal residues are responsible for targeting PfHP1 to the nucleus. Furthermore, we reveal that each of the three functional domains of PfHP1 are required for heterochromatin formation, gene silencing, and mitotic parasite proliferation. Finally, we discovered that the hinge domain and CSD of HP1 are functionally conserved between P. falciparum and P. berghei, a related malaria parasite infecting rodents. In summary, our study provides new insights into PfHP1 function and offers a tool for further studies on epigenetic regulation and life cycle decision in malaria parasites.IMPORTANCE Malaria is caused by unicellular Plasmodium species parasites that repeatedly invade and replicate inside red blood cells. Some blood-stage parasites exit the cell cycle and differentiate into gametocytes that are essential for malaria transmission via the mosquito vector. Epigenetic control mechanisms allow the parasites to alter the expression of surface antigens and to balance the switch between parasite multiplication and gametocyte production. These processes are crucial to establish chronic infection and optimize parasite transmission. Here, we performed a mutational analysis of heterochromatin protein 1 (HP1) in P. falciparum We demonstrate that all three domains of this protein are indispensable for the proper function of HP1 in parasite multiplication, heterochromatin formation, and gene silencing. Moreover, expression of chimeric proteins revealed the functional conservation of HP1 proteins between different Plasmodium species. These results provide new insight into the function and evolution of HP1 as an essential epigenetic regulator of parasite survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai T N Bui
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Armin Passecker
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas M B Brancucci
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Till S Voss
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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45
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Nofal SD, Patel A, Blackman MJ, Flueck C, Baker DA. Plasmodium falciparum Guanylyl Cyclase-Alpha and the Activity of Its Appended P4-ATPase Domain Are Essential for cGMP Synthesis and Blood-Stage Egress. mBio 2021; 12:e02694-20. [PMID: 33500341 PMCID: PMC7858053 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02694-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Guanylyl cyclases (GCs) synthesize cyclic GMP (cGMP) and, together with cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases, are responsible for regulating levels of this intracellular messenger which mediates myriad functions across eukaryotes. In malaria parasites (Plasmodium spp), as well as their apicomplexan and ciliate relatives, GCs are associated with a P4-ATPase-like domain in a unique bifunctional configuration. P4-ATPases generate membrane bilayer lipid asymmetry by translocating phospholipids from the outer to the inner leaflet. Here, we investigate the role of Plasmodium falciparum guanylyl cyclase alpha (GCα) and its associated P4-ATPase module, showing that asexual blood-stage parasites lacking both the cyclase and P4-ATPase domains are unable to egress from host erythrocytes. GCα-null parasites cannot synthesize cGMP or mobilize calcium, a cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG)-driven requirement for egress. Using chemical complementation with a cGMP analogue and point mutagenesis of a crucial conserved residue within the P4-ATPase domain, we show that P4-ATPase activity is upstream of and linked to cGMP synthesis. Collectively, our results demonstrate that GCα is a critical regulator of PKG and that its associated P4-ATPase domain plays a primary role in generating cGMP for merozoite egress.IMPORTANCE The clinical manifestations of malaria arise due to successive rounds of replication of Plasmodium parasites within red blood cells. Once mature, daughter merozoites are released from infected erythrocytes to invade new cells in a tightly regulated process termed egress. Previous studies have shown that the activation of cyclic GMP (cGMP) signaling is critical for initiating egress. Here, we demonstrate that GCα, a unique bifunctional enzyme, is the sole enzyme responsible for cGMP production during the asexual blood stages of Plasmodium falciparum and is required for the cellular events leading up to merozoite egress. We further demonstrate that in addition to the GC domain, the appended ATPase-like domain of GCα is also involved in cGMP production. Our results highlight the critical role of GCα in cGMP signaling required for orchestrating malaria parasite egress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie D Nofal
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Avnish Patel
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Michael J Blackman
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Christian Flueck
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - David A Baker
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
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46
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Zhao Y, Wang F, Wang C, Zhang X, Jiang C, Ding F, Shen L, Zhang Q. Optimization of CRISPR/Cas System for Improving Genome Editing Efficiency in Plasmodium falciparum. Front Microbiol 2021; 11:625862. [PMID: 33488567 PMCID: PMC7819880 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.625862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies of molecular mechanisms and related gene functions have long been restricted by limited genome editing technologies in malaria parasites. Recently, a simple and effective genome editing technology, the CRISPR/Cas (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated) system, has greatly facilitated these studies in many organisms, including malaria parasites. However, due to the special genome feature of malaria parasites, the manipulation and gene editing efficacy of the CRISPR/Cas system in this pathogen need to be improved, particularly in the human malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. Herein, based on the CRISPR/Cas9 system, we developed an integrating strategy to generate a Cas9i system, which significantly shortened the time for generation of transgenic strains in P. falciparum. Moreover, with this Cas9i system, we have successfully achieved multiplexed genome editing (mutating or tagging) by a single-round transfection in P. falciparum. In addition, we for the first time adapted AsCpf1 (Acidaminococcus sp. Cpf1), an alternative to Cas9, into P. falciparum parasites and examined it for gene editing. These optimizations of the CRISPR/Cas system will further facilitate the mechanistic research of malaria parasites and contribute to eliminating malaria in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuemeng Zhao
- Research Center for Translational Medicine, Key Laboratory of Arrhythmias of the Ministry of Education of China, East Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Fei Wang
- Research Center for Translational Medicine, Key Laboratory of Arrhythmias of the Ministry of Education of China, East Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Changhong Wang
- Research Center for Translational Medicine, Key Laboratory of Arrhythmias of the Ministry of Education of China, East Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaobai Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury Repair and Regeneration of Ministry of Education, Orthopaedic Department of Tongji Hospital, Tongji University, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, The School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Cizhong Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury Repair and Regeneration of Ministry of Education, Orthopaedic Department of Tongji Hospital, Tongji University, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, The School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Feng Ding
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Li Shen
- Research Center for Translational Medicine, Key Laboratory of Arrhythmias of the Ministry of Education of China, East Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Qingfeng Zhang
- Research Center for Translational Medicine, Key Laboratory of Arrhythmias of the Ministry of Education of China, East Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
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47
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Nasamu AS, Falla A, Pasaje CFA, Wall BA, Wagner JC, Ganesan SM, Goldfless SJ, Niles JC. An integrated platform for genome engineering and gene expression perturbation in Plasmodium falciparum. Sci Rep 2021; 11:342. [PMID: 33431920 PMCID: PMC7801740 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-77644-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Establishing robust genome engineering methods in the malarial parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, has the potential to substantially improve the efficiency with which we gain understanding of this pathogen's biology to propel treatment and elimination efforts. Methods for manipulating gene expression and engineering the P. falciparum genome have been validated. However, a significant barrier to fully leveraging these advances is the difficulty associated with assembling the extremely high AT content DNA constructs required for modifying the P. falciparum genome. These are frequently unstable in commonly-used circular plasmids. We address this bottleneck by devising a DNA assembly framework leveraging the improved reliability with which large AT-rich regions can be efficiently manipulated in linear plasmids. This framework integrates several key functional genetics outcomes via CRISPR/Cas9 and other methods from a common, validated framework. Overall, this molecular toolkit enables P. falciparum genetics broadly and facilitates deeper interrogation of parasite genes involved in diverse biological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armiyaw S Nasamu
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Room 56-341B, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Alejandra Falla
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Room 56-341B, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Charisse Flerida A Pasaje
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Room 56-341B, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Bridget A Wall
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Room 56-341B, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Jeffrey C Wagner
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Room 56-341B, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Suresh M Ganesan
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Room 56-341B, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Stephen J Goldfless
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Room 56-341B, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Jacquin C Niles
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Room 56-341B, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA.
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48
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Liu C, Yang Z, Cai M, Shi Y, Cui H, Yuan J. Generation of Plasmodium yoelii malaria parasite for conditional degradation of proteins. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2020; 241:111346. [PMID: 33307135 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2020.111346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2020] [Revised: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The auxin-inducible degron (AID) system is a robust chemical-genetic method for manipulating endogenous protein level by conditional proteasomal degradation via a small molecule. So far, this system has not been adapted in the P. yoelii, an important and widely used Plasmodium rodent parasite model for malaria biology. Here, using the CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing method, we generated two marker-free transgenic P. yoelii parasite lines (eef1a-Tir1 and soap-Tir1) stably expressing the Oryza sativa gene tir1 under the promoters of eef1a and soap respectively. These two lines develop normally during the parasite life cycle. In these backgrounds, we used the CRISPR/Cas9 method to tag two genes (cdc50c and fbxo1) with the AID motif and interrogate the expression of these two proteins with auxin. The eef1a-Tir1 line allows efficient degradation of the AID-tagged endogenous protein in the asexual schizont and sexual gametocyte stages, while the soap-Tir1 line allows protein degradation in the ookinetes. These two lines will be a useful resource for studying the Plasmodium parasite biology based on the P. yoelii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuanyuan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signal Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, China
| | - Zhenke Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signal Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, China
| | - Mengya Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signal Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, China
| | - Yang Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signal Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, China
| | - Huiting Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signal Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, China
| | - Jing Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signal Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, China.
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49
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Collins CR, Hackett F, Howell SA, Snijders AP, Russell MRG, Collinson LM, Blackman MJ. The malaria parasite sheddase SUB2 governs host red blood cell membrane sealing at invasion. eLife 2020; 9:e61121. [PMID: 33287958 PMCID: PMC7723409 DOI: 10.7554/elife.61121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Red blood cell (RBC) invasion by malaria merozoites involves formation of a parasitophorous vacuole into which the parasite moves. The vacuole membrane seals and pinches off behind the parasite through an unknown mechanism, enclosing the parasite within the RBC. During invasion, several parasite surface proteins are shed by a membrane-bound protease called SUB2. Here we show that genetic depletion of SUB2 abolishes shedding of a range of parasite proteins, identifying previously unrecognized SUB2 substrates. Interaction of SUB2-null merozoites with RBCs leads to either abortive invasion with rapid RBC lysis, or successful entry but developmental arrest. Selective failure to shed the most abundant SUB2 substrate, MSP1, reduces intracellular replication, whilst conditional ablation of the substrate AMA1 produces host RBC lysis. We conclude that SUB2 activity is critical for host RBC membrane sealing following parasite internalisation and for correct functioning of merozoite surface proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine R Collins
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Fiona Hackett
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Steven A Howell
- Protein Analysis and Proteomics Platform, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Ambrosius P Snijders
- Protein Analysis and Proteomics Platform, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Matthew RG Russell
- Electron Microscopy Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Lucy M Collinson
- Electron Microscopy Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Michael J Blackman
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
- Faculty of Infectious Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical MedicineLondonUnited Kingdom
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50
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Definition of constitutive and stage-enriched promoters in the rodent malaria parasite, Plasmodium yoelii. Malar J 2020; 19:424. [PMID: 33228734 PMCID: PMC7685602 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-020-03498-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 11/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Well-defined promoters are essential elements for genetic studies in all organisms, and enable controlled expression of endogenous genes, transgene expression, and gene editing. Despite this, there is a paucity of defined promoters for the rodent-infectious malaria parasites. This is especially true for Plasmodium yoelii, which is often used to study the mosquito and liver stages of malarial infection, as well as host immune responses to infection. Methods Here six promoters were selected from across the parasite’s life cycle (clag-a, dynein heavy chain delta, lap4, trap, uis4, lisp2) that have been invoked in the literature as controlling their genes in a stage-specific manner. A minimal promoter length for the constitutive pybip promoter that confers strong expression levels was also determined, which is useful for expression of reporters and gene editing enzymes. Results Instead, it was observed that these promoters confer stage-enriched gene control, as some parasites also effectively use these promoters in other stages. Thus, when used alone, these promoters could complicate the interpretation of results obtained from promoter swaps, stage-targeted recombination, or gene editing experiments. Conclusions Together these data indicate that achieving stage-specific effects, such as gene editing, is likely best done using a two-component system with independent promoter activities overlapping only in the intended life cycle stage.
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