1
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Vy TTP, Inoue Y, Asuke S, Chuma I, Nakayashiki H, Tosa Y. The ACE1 secondary metabolite gene cluster is a pathogenicity factor of wheat blast fungus. Commun Biol 2024; 7:812. [PMID: 38965407 PMCID: PMC11224330 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-024-06517-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 06/27/2024] [Indexed: 07/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Wheat blast caused by Pyricularia oryzae pathotype Triticum is now becoming a very serious threat to global food security. Here, we report an essential pathogenicity factor of the wheat blast fungus that is recognized and may be targeted by a rice resistance gene. Map-based cloning of Pwt2 showed that its functional allele is the ACE1 secondary metabolite gene cluster of the wheat blast fungus required for its efficient penetration of wheat cell walls. ACE1 is required for the strong aggressiveness of Triticum, Eleusine, and Lolium pathotypes on their respective hosts, but not for that of Oryza and Setaria pathotypes on rice and foxtail millet, respectively. All ACE1 alleles found in wheat blast population are recognized by a rice resistance gene, Pi33, when introduced into rice blast isolates. ACE1 mutations for evading the recognition by Pi33 do not affect the aggressiveness of the rice blast fungus on rice but inevitably impair the aggressiveness of the wheat blast fungus on wheat. These results suggest that a blast resistance gene already defeated in rice may be revived as a durable resistance gene in wheat by targeting an Achilles heel of the wheat blast fungus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trinh T P Vy
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Kobe, 657-8501, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Inoue
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan
| | - Soichiro Asuke
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Kobe, 657-8501, Japan
| | - Izumi Chuma
- Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, 080-8555, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Nakayashiki
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Kobe, 657-8501, Japan
| | - Yukio Tosa
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Kobe, 657-8501, Japan.
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2
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Baudin M, Le Naour‐Vernet M, Gladieux P, Tharreau D, Lebrun M, Lambou K, Leys M, Fournier E, Césari S, Kroj T. Pyricularia oryzae: Lab star and field scourge. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2024; 25:e13449. [PMID: 38619508 PMCID: PMC11018116 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.13449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2024] [Revised: 03/08/2024] [Accepted: 03/09/2024] [Indexed: 04/16/2024]
Abstract
Pyricularia oryzae (syn. Magnaporthe oryzae), is a filamentous ascomycete that causes a major disease called blast on cereal crops, as well as on a wide variety of wild and cultivated grasses. Blast diseases have a tremendous impact worldwide particularly on rice and on wheat, where the disease emerged in South America in the 1980s, before spreading to Asia and Africa. Its economic importance, coupled with its amenability to molecular and genetic manipulation, have inspired extensive research efforts aiming at understanding its biology and evolution. In the past 40 years, this plant-pathogenic fungus has emerged as a major model in molecular plant-microbe interactions. In this review, we focus on the clarification of the taxonomy and genetic structure of the species and its host range determinants. We also discuss recent molecular studies deciphering its lifecycle. TAXONOMY Kingdom: Fungi, phylum: Ascomycota, sub-phylum: Pezizomycotina, class: Sordariomycetes, order: Magnaporthales, family: Pyriculariaceae, genus: Pyricularia. HOST RANGE P. oryzae has the ability to infect a wide range of Poaceae. It is structured into different host-specialized lineages that are each associated with a few host plant genera. The fungus is best known to cause tremendous damage to rice crops, but it can also attack other economically important crops such as wheat, maize, barley, and finger millet. DISEASE SYMPTOMS P. oryzae can cause necrotic lesions or bleaching on all aerial parts of its host plants, including leaf blades, sheaths, and inflorescences (panicles, spikes, and seeds). Characteristic symptoms on leaves are diamond-shaped silver lesions that often have a brown margin and whose appearance is influenced by numerous factors such as the plant genotype and environmental conditions. USEFUL WEBSITES Resources URL Genomic data repositories http://genome.jouy.inra.fr/gemo/ Genomic data repositories http://openriceblast.org/ Genomic data repositories http://openwheatblast.net/ Genome browser for fungi (including P. oryzae) http://fungi.ensembl.org/index.html Comparative genomics database https://mycocosm.jgi.doe.gov/mycocosm/home T-DNA mutant database http://atmt.snu.kr/ T-DNA mutant database http://www.phi-base.org/ SNP and expression data https://fungidb.org/fungidb/app/.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maël Baudin
- PHIM Plant Health Institute, Univ Montpellier, INRAE, CIRAD, Institut Agro, IRDMontpellierFrance
- Present address:
Université Angers, Institut Agro, INRAE, IRHS, SFR QUASAVAngersFrance
| | - Marie Le Naour‐Vernet
- PHIM Plant Health Institute, Univ Montpellier, INRAE, CIRAD, Institut Agro, IRDMontpellierFrance
| | - Pierre Gladieux
- PHIM Plant Health Institute, Univ Montpellier, INRAE, CIRAD, Institut Agro, IRDMontpellierFrance
| | - Didier Tharreau
- PHIM Plant Health Institute, Univ Montpellier, INRAE, CIRAD, Institut Agro, IRDMontpellierFrance
- CIRAD, UMR PHIMMontpellierFrance
| | - Marc‐Henri Lebrun
- UMR 1290 BIOGER – Campus Agro Paris‐Saclay – INRAE‐AgroParisTechPalaiseauFrance
| | - Karine Lambou
- PHIM Plant Health Institute, Univ Montpellier, INRAE, CIRAD, Institut Agro, IRDMontpellierFrance
| | - Marie Leys
- PHIM Plant Health Institute, Univ Montpellier, INRAE, CIRAD, Institut Agro, IRDMontpellierFrance
| | - Elisabeth Fournier
- PHIM Plant Health Institute, Univ Montpellier, INRAE, CIRAD, Institut Agro, IRDMontpellierFrance
| | - Stella Césari
- PHIM Plant Health Institute, Univ Montpellier, INRAE, CIRAD, Institut Agro, IRDMontpellierFrance
| | - Thomas Kroj
- PHIM Plant Health Institute, Univ Montpellier, INRAE, CIRAD, Institut Agro, IRDMontpellierFrance
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3
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Eisermann I, Talbot NJ. Septin-dependent invasive growth by the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae. JOURNAL OF PLANT DISEASES AND PROTECTION : SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL OF THE GERMAN PHYTOMEDICAL SOCIETY (DPG) 2024; 131:1145-1151. [PMID: 38947556 PMCID: PMC11213810 DOI: 10.1007/s41348-024-00883-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 07/02/2024]
Abstract
Septin GTPases are morphogenetic proteins that are widely conserved in eukaryotic organisms fulfilling diverse roles in cell division, differentiation and development. In the filamentous fungal pathogen Magnaporthe oryzae, the causal agent of the devastating blast diseases of rice and wheat, septins have been shown to be essential for plant infection. The blast fungus elaborates a specialised infection structure called an appressorium with which it mechanically ruptures the plant cuticle. Septin aggregation and generation of a hetero-oligomeric ring structure at the base of the infection cell is indispensable for plant infection. Furthermore, once the fungus enters host tissue it develops another infection structure, the transpressorium, enabling it to move between living host plant cells, which also requires septins for its function. Specific inhibition of septin aggregation-either genetically or with chemical inhibitors-prevents plant infection. Significantly, by screening for inhibitors of septin aggregation, broad spectrum anti-fungal compounds have been identified that prevent rice blast and a number of other cereal diseases in field trials. We review the recent advances in our understanding of septin biology and their potential as targets for crop disease control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iris Eisermann
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR47UH UK
| | - Nicholas J. Talbot
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR47UH UK
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4
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Ascari JP, Cazón LI, Rahnama M, Lamour K, Fernandes JMC, Farman ML, Ponte EMD. Pyricularia Are Mostly Host-Specialized with Limited Reciprocal Cross-Infection Between Wheat and Endemic Grasses in Minas Gerais, Brazil. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2024; 114:226-240. [PMID: 37399001 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-01-23-0024-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
Wheat blast, caused by Pyricularia oryzae Triticum (PoT), is an emerging threat to global wheat production. The current understanding of the population biology of the pathogen and epidemiology of the disease has been based on phylogenomic studies that compared the wheat blast pathogen with isolates collected from grasses that were invasive to Brazilian wheat fields. In this study, we performed a comprehensive sampling of blast lesions in wheat crops and endemic grasses found in and away from wheat fields in Minas Gerais. A total of 1,368 diseased samples were collected (976 leaves of wheat and grasses and 392 wheat heads), which yielded a working collection of 564 Pyricularia isolates. We show that, contrary to earlier implications, PoT was rarely found on endemic grasses, and, conversely, members of grass-adapted lineages were rarely found on wheat. Instead, most lineages were host-specialized, with constituent isolates usually grouping according to their host of origin. With regard to the dominant role proposed for signalgrass in wheat blast epidemiology, we found only one PoT member in 67 isolates collected from signalgrass grown away from wheat fields and only three members of Urochloa-adapted lineages among hundreds of isolates from wheat. Cross-inoculation assays on wheat and a signalgrass used in pastures (U. brizantha) suggested that the limited cross-infection observed in the field may be due to innate compatibility differences. Whether or not the observed level of cross-infection would be sufficient to provide an inoculum reservoir, or serve as a bridge between wheat growing regions, is questionable and, therefore, deserves further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- João P Ascari
- Departamento de Fitopatologia, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, MG 36570-900, Brazil
| | - Luis I Cazón
- Departamento de Fitopatologia, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, MG 36570-900, Brazil
| | - Mostafa Rahnama
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, U.S.A
- Department of Biology, Tennessee Tech University, Cookeville, TN 38501, U.S.A
| | - Kurt Lamour
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, U.S.A
| | | | - Mark L Farman
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, U.S.A
| | - Emerson M Del Ponte
- Departamento de Fitopatologia, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, MG 36570-900, Brazil
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5
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Farman ML, Ascari JP, Rahnama M, Ponte EMD, Pedley KF, Martinez S, Fernandes JMC, Valent B. A Reevaluation of Phylogenomic Data Reveals that Current Understanding in Wheat Blast Population Biology and Epidemiology Is Obfuscated by Oversights in Population Sampling. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2024; 114:220-225. [PMID: 37486092 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-01-23-0025-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/25/2023]
Abstract
Wheat blast, caused by the Pyricularia oryzae Triticum lineage (PoT), first emerged in Brazil and quickly spread to neighboring countries. Its recent appearance in Bangladesh and Zambia highlights a need to understand the disease's population biology and epidemiology so as to mitigate pandemic outbreaks. Current knowledge is mostly based on characterizations of Brazilian wheat blast isolates and comparison with isolates from non-wheat, endemic grasses. These foregoing studies concluded that the wheat blast population lacks host specificity and, as a result, undergoes extensive gene flow with populations infecting non-wheat hosts. Additionally, based on genetic similarity between wheat blast and isolates infecting Urochloa species, it was proposed that the disease originally emerged via a host jump from this grass and that Urochloa likely plays a central role in wheat blast epidemiology owing to its widespread use as a pasture grass. However, due to inconsistencies with broader phylogenetic studies, we suspected that these seminal studies had not actually sampled the populations normally found on endemic grasses and, instead, had repeatedly isolated members of PoT and the related Lolium pathogen lineage (PoL1). Re-analysis of the Brazilian data as part of a comprehensive, global, phylogenomic dataset that included a small number of South American isolates sampled away from wheat confirmed our suspicion and identified four new P. oryzae lineages on grass hosts. As a result, the conclusions underpinning current understanding in wheat blast's evolution, population biology, and epidemiology are unsubstantiated and could be equivocal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark L Farman
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, U.S.A
| | - Joao P Ascari
- Departamento de Fitopatologia, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, MG, 36570-900, Brazil
| | - Mostafa Rahnama
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, U.S.A
| | - Emerson M Del Ponte
- Departamento de Fitopatologia, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, MG, 36570-900, Brazil
| | - Kerry F Pedley
- U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Foreign Disease Weed Science Research Unit, Fort Detrick, MD 21702, U.S.A
| | - Sebastián Martinez
- Instituto Nacional de Investigación Agropecuaria, INIA Treinta y Tres, 33000 Treinta y Tres, Uruguay
| | | | - Barbara Valent
- Department of Plant Pathology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, U.S.A
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Thierry M, Charriat F, Milazzo J, Adreit H, Ravel S, Cros-Arteil S, borron S, Sella V, Kroj T, Ioos R, Fournier E, Tharreau D, Gladieux P. Maintenance of divergent lineages of the Rice Blast Fungus Pyricularia oryzae through niche separation, loss of sex and post-mating genetic incompatibilities. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1010687. [PMID: 35877779 PMCID: PMC9352207 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2021] [Revised: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 06/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Many species of fungal plant pathogens coexist as multiple lineages on the same host, but the factors underlying the origin and maintenance of population structure remain largely unknown. The rice blast fungus Pyricularia oryzae is a widespread model plant pathogen displaying population subdivision. However, most studies of natural variation in P. oryzae have been limited in genomic or geographic resolution, and host adaptation is the only factor that has been investigated extensively as a contributor to population subdivision. In an effort to complement previous studies, we analyzed genetic and phenotypic diversity in isolates of the rice blast fungus covering a broad geographical range. Using single-nucleotide polymorphism genotyping data for 886 isolates sampled from 152 sites in 51 countries, we showed that population subdivision of P. oryzae in one recombining and three clonal lineages with broad distributions persisted with deeper sampling. We also extended previous findings by showing further population subdivision of the recombining lineage into one international and three Asian clusters, and by providing evidence that the three clonal lineages of P. oryzae were found in areas with different prevailing environmental conditions, indicating niche separation. Pathogenicity tests and bioinformatic analyses using an extended set of isolates and rice varieties indicated that partial specialization to rice subgroups contributed to niche separation between lineages, and differences in repertoires of putative virulence effectors were consistent with differences in host range. Experimental crosses revealed that female sterility and early post-mating genetic incompatibilities acted as strong additional barriers to gene flow between clonal lineages. Our results demonstrate that the spread of a fungal pathogen across heterogeneous habitats and divergent populations of a crop species can lead to niche separation and reproductive isolation between distinct, widely distributed, lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maud Thierry
- PHIM Plant Health Institute, Univ Montpellier, INRAE, CIRAD, Institut Agro, IRD, Montpellier, France
- CIRAD, UMR PHIM, Montpellier, France
- ANSES Plant Health Laboratory, Mycology Unit, Malzéville, France
| | - Florian Charriat
- PHIM Plant Health Institute, Univ Montpellier, INRAE, CIRAD, Institut Agro, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - Joëlle Milazzo
- PHIM Plant Health Institute, Univ Montpellier, INRAE, CIRAD, Institut Agro, IRD, Montpellier, France
- CIRAD, UMR PHIM, Montpellier, France
| | - Henri Adreit
- PHIM Plant Health Institute, Univ Montpellier, INRAE, CIRAD, Institut Agro, IRD, Montpellier, France
- CIRAD, UMR PHIM, Montpellier, France
| | - Sébastien Ravel
- PHIM Plant Health Institute, Univ Montpellier, INRAE, CIRAD, Institut Agro, IRD, Montpellier, France
- CIRAD, UMR PHIM, Montpellier, France
| | - Sandrine Cros-Arteil
- PHIM Plant Health Institute, Univ Montpellier, INRAE, CIRAD, Institut Agro, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - Sonia borron
- PHIM Plant Health Institute, Univ Montpellier, INRAE, CIRAD, Institut Agro, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - Violaine Sella
- ANSES Plant Health Laboratory, Mycology Unit, Malzéville, France
| | - Thomas Kroj
- PHIM Plant Health Institute, Univ Montpellier, INRAE, CIRAD, Institut Agro, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - Renaud Ioos
- ANSES Plant Health Laboratory, Mycology Unit, Malzéville, France
| | - Elisabeth Fournier
- PHIM Plant Health Institute, Univ Montpellier, INRAE, CIRAD, Institut Agro, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - Didier Tharreau
- PHIM Plant Health Institute, Univ Montpellier, INRAE, CIRAD, Institut Agro, IRD, Montpellier, France
- CIRAD, UMR PHIM, Montpellier, France
- * E-mail: (DT); (PG)
| | - Pierre Gladieux
- PHIM Plant Health Institute, Univ Montpellier, INRAE, CIRAD, Institut Agro, IRD, Montpellier, France
- * E-mail: (DT); (PG)
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7
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Navia-Urrutia M, Mosquera G, Ellsworth R, Farman M, Trick HN, Valent B. Effector Genes in Magnaporthe oryzae Triticum as Potential Targets for Incorporating Blast Resistance in Wheat. PLANT DISEASE 2022; 106:1700-1712. [PMID: 34931892 DOI: 10.1094/pdis-10-21-2209-re] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Wheat blast (WB), caused by Magnaporthe oryzae Triticum pathotype, recently emerged as a destructive disease that threatens global wheat production. Because few sources of genetic resistance have been identified in wheat, genetic transformation of wheat with rice blast resistance genes could expand resistance to WB. We evaluated the presence/absence of homologs of rice blast effector genes in Triticum isolates with the aim of identifying avirulence genes in field populations whose cognate rice resistance genes could potentially confer resistance to WB. We also assessed presence of the wheat pathogen AVR-Rmg8 gene and identified new alleles. A total of 102 isolates collected in Brazil, Bolivia, and Paraguay from 1986 to 2018 were evaluated by PCR using 21 pairs of gene-specific primers. Effector gene composition was highly variable, with homologs to AvrPiz-t, AVR-Pi9, AVR-Pi54, and ACE1 showing the highest amplification frequencies (>94%). We identified Triticum isolates with a functional AvrPiz-t homolog that triggers Piz-t-mediated resistance in the rice pathosystem and produced transgenic wheat plants expressing the rice Piz-t gene. Seedlings and heads of the transgenic lines were challenged with isolate T25 carrying functional AvrPiz-t. Although slight decreases in the percentage of diseased spikelets and leaf area infected were observed in two transgenic lines, our results indicated that Piz-t did not confer useful WB resistance. Monitoring of avirulence genes in populations is fundamental to identifying effective resistance genes for incorporation into wheat by conventional breeding or transgenesis. Based on avirulence gene distributions, rice resistance genes Pi9 and Pi54 might be candidates for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Navia-Urrutia
- Department of Plant Pathology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, U.S.A
| | - Gloria Mosquera
- Rice Pathology, International Center for Tropical Agriculture, Palmira, 763537, Colombia
| | - Rebekah Ellsworth
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, U.S.A
| | - Mark Farman
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, U.S.A
| | - Harold N Trick
- Department of Plant Pathology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, U.S.A
| | - Barbara Valent
- Department of Plant Pathology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, U.S.A
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8
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Antifungal Secondary Metabolites Against Blast Fungus Magnaporthe oryzae. Fungal Biol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-04805-0_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
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9
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Du Y, Qi Z, Liang D, Yu J, Yu M, Zhang R, Cao H, Yong M, Pan X, Yin X, Qiao J, Liu Y, Chen Z, Song T, Liu W, Zhang Z, Liu Y. Pyricularia sp. jiangsuensis, a new cryptic rice panicle blast pathogen from rice fields in Jiangsu Province, China. Environ Microbiol 2021; 23:5463-5480. [PMID: 34288342 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.15678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Revised: 07/10/2021] [Accepted: 07/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Pyricularia oryzae is a multi-host pathogen causing cereal disease, including the devastating rice blast. Panicle blast is a serious stage, leading to severe yield loss. Thirty-one isolates (average 4.1%) were collected from the rice panicle lesions at nine locations covering Jiangsu province from 2010 to 2017. These isolates were characterized as Pyricularia sp. jiangsuensis distinct from known Pyricularia species. The representative strain 18-2 can infect rice panicle, root and five kinds of grasses. Intriguingly, strain 18-2 can co-infect rice leaf with P. oryzae Guy11. The whole genome of P. sp. jiangsuensis 18-2 was sequenced. Nine effectors were distributed in translocation or inversion region, which may link to the rapid evolution of effectors. Twenty-one homologues of known blast-effectors were identified in strain 18-2, seven effectors including the homologues of SLP1, BAS2, BAS113, CDIP2/3, MoHEG16 and Avr-Pi54, were upregulated in the sample of inoculated panicle with strain 18-2 at 24 hpi compared with inoculation at 8 hpi. Our results provide evidences that P. sp. jiangsuensis represents an addition to the mycobiota of blast disease. This study advances our understanding of the pathogenicity of P. sp. jiangsuensis to hosts, which sheds new light on the adaptability in the co-evolution of pathogen and host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Du
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Zhongqiang Qi
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Dong Liang
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Junjie Yu
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Mina Yu
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Rongsheng Zhang
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Huijuan Cao
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Mingli Yong
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Xiayan Pan
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Xiaole Yin
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Junqing Qiao
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Youzhou Liu
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Zhiyi Chen
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Tianqiao Song
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Wende Liu
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Zhengguang Zhang
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Yongfeng Liu
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, 210014, China.,International Rice Research Institute, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences Joint Laboratory, Nanjing, 210014, China
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10
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Chakraborty M, Mahmud NU, Ullah C, Rahman M, Islam T. Biological and biorational management of blast diseases in cereals caused by Magnaporthe oryzae. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2021; 41:994-1022. [PMID: 34006149 DOI: 10.1080/07388551.2021.1898325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Blast diseases, caused by the fungal pathogen Magnaporthe oryzae, are among the most destructive diseases that occur on at least 50 species of grasses, including cultivated cereals wheat, and rice. Although fungicidal control of blast diseases has widely been researched, development of resistance of the pathogen against commercially available products makes this approach unreliable. Novel approaches such as the application of biopesticides against the blast fungus are needed for sustainable management of this economically important disease. Antagonistic microorganisms, such as fungi and probiotic bacteria from diverse taxonomic genera were found to suppress blast fungi both in vitro and in vivo. Various classes of secondary metabolites, such as alkaloids, phenolics, and terpenoids of plant and microbial origin significantly inhibit fungal growth and may also be effective in managing blast diseases. Common modes of action of microbial biocontrol agents include: antibiosis, production of lytic enzymes, induction of systemic resistance in host plant, and competition for nutrients or space. However, the precise mechanism of biocontrol of the blast fungus by antagonistic microorganisms and/or their bioactive secondary metabolites is not well understood. Commercial formulations of biocontrol agents and bioactive natural products could be cost-effective and sustainable but their availability at this time is extremely limited. This review updates our knowledge on the infection pathway of the wheat blast fungus, catalogs naturally occurring biocontrol agents that may be effective against blast diseases, and discusses their role in sustainable management of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moutoshi Chakraborty
- Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Gazipur 1706, Bangladesh
| | - Nur Uddin Mahmud
- Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Gazipur 1706, Bangladesh
| | - Chhana Ullah
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Mahfuzur Rahman
- WVU Extension Service, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Tofazzal Islam
- Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Gazipur 1706, Bangladesh
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11
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Abstract
Rice blast disease is both the most explosive and potentially damaging disease of the world's rice (Oryza sativa) crop and a model system for research on the molecular mechanisms that fungi use to cause plant disease. The blast fungus, Magnaporthe oryzae, is highly evolved to sense when it is on a leaf surface; to develop a pressurized cell, the appressorium, to punch through the leaf cuticle; and then to hijack living rice cells to assist it in causing disease. Host specificity, determining which plants particular fungal strains can infect, is also an important topic for research. The blast fungus is a moving target, quickly overcoming rice resistance genes we deploy to control it, and recently emerging to cause devastating disease on an entirely new cereal crop, wheat. M. oryzae is highly adaptable, with multiple examples of genetic instability at certain gene loci and in certain genomic regions. Understanding the biology of the fungus in the field, and its potential for genetic and genome variability, is key to keep it from adapting to life in the research laboratory and losing relevance to the significant impact it has on global food security.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Valent
- Department of Plant Pathology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA.
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12
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Crandall SG, Gold KM, Jiménez-Gasco MDM, Filgueiras CC, Willett DS. A multi-omics approach to solving problems in plant disease ecology. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0237975. [PMID: 32960892 PMCID: PMC7508392 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0237975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The swift rise of omics-approaches allows for investigating microbial diversity and plant-microbe interactions across diverse ecological communities and spatio-temporal scales. The environment, however, is rapidly changing. The introduction of invasive species and the effects of climate change have particular impact on emerging plant diseases and managing current epidemics. It is critical, therefore, to take a holistic approach to understand how and why pathogenesis occurs in order to effectively manage for diseases given the synergies of changing environmental conditions. A multi-omics approach allows for a detailed picture of plant-microbial interactions and can ultimately allow us to build predictive models for how microbes and plants will respond to stress under environmental change. This article is designed as a primer for those interested in integrating -omic approaches into their plant disease research. We review -omics technologies salient to pathology including metabolomics, genomics, metagenomics, volatilomics, and spectranomics, and present cases where multi-omics have been successfully used for plant disease ecology. We then discuss additional limitations and pitfalls to be wary of prior to conducting an integrated research project as well as provide information about promising future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharifa G. Crandall
- Department of Plant Pathology and Environmental Microbiology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States of America
| | - Kaitlin M. Gold
- Plant Pathology & Plant Microbe Biology Section, Cornell AgriTech, Cornell University, Geneva, NY, United States of America
| | - María del Mar Jiménez-Gasco
- Department of Plant Pathology and Environmental Microbiology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States of America
| | - Camila C. Filgueiras
- Applied Chemical Ecology Technology, Cornell AgriTech, Cornell University, Geneva, NY, United States of America
| | - Denis S. Willett
- Applied Chemical Ecology Technology, Cornell AgriTech, Cornell University, Geneva, NY, United States of America
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13
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Tembo B, Mulenga RM, Sichilima S, M’siska KK, Mwale M, Chikoti PC, Singh PK, He X, Pedley KF, Peterson GL, Singh RP, Braun HJ. Detection and characterization of fungus (Magnaporthe oryzae pathotype Triticum) causing wheat blast disease on rain-fed grown wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in Zambia. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0238724. [PMID: 32956369 PMCID: PMC7505438 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0238724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Wheat blast caused by Magnaporthe oryzae pathotype Triticum (MoT) is a threat to wheat production especially in the warmer-humid environments. In Zambia, wheat blast symptoms were observed for the first time on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grown in experimental plots and five farmers’ fields in Mpika district of Muchinga Province during the 2017–18 rainy season. Infected plants showed the typical wheat blast symptoms with the spike becoming partially or completely bleached with the blackening of the rachis in a short span of time. Incidence of blast symptoms on nearly all wheat heads was high and ranged from 50 to 100%. Examination of diseased plant leaves showed the presence of elliptical, grayish to tan necrotic lesions with dark borders on the leaf often mixed with other foliar diseases. A study was conducted to isolate and identify the causal pathogen(s) using classical and molecular methods and determine the pathogenicity of the detected disease causal agent. Morphobiometrical determination of causal pathogen revealed conidia with characteristic pear shaped 2-septate hyaline spores associated with M. oryzae species. Preliminary polymerase chain reaction screening of six isolates obtained from wheat blast infected samples with diagnostic primers (MoT3F/R) was conducted at ZARI, Zambia, and subsequent analysis of two isolates with MoT3F/R and C17F/R was performed at USDA-ARS, USA. Both experiments confirmed that MoT is the causal agent of wheat blast in Zambia. Further, pathogenicity tests performed with pure culture isolates from samples WS4 and WS5 produced typical blast symptoms on all the six inoculated wheat genotypes. Results of this study indicate that MoT is causing wheat blast in rain-fed wheat grown in Zambia, thus making it the first report of MoT in Zambia and Africa. This inter-continental movement of the pathogen (disease) has serious implication for wheat production and trade that needs to be urgently addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Batiseba Tembo
- Zambia Agricultural Research Institute, Mt. Makulu Central Research Station, Chilanga, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Rabson M. Mulenga
- Zambia Agricultural Research Institute, Mt. Makulu Central Research Station, Chilanga, Lusaka, Zambia
- * E-mail: (RMM); (PKS)
| | - Suwilanji Sichilima
- Zambia Agricultural Research Institute, Mt. Makulu Central Research Station, Chilanga, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Kenneth K. M’siska
- Zambia Agricultural Research Institute, Mt. Makulu Central Research Station, Chilanga, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Moses Mwale
- Zambia Agricultural Research Institute, Mt. Makulu Central Research Station, Chilanga, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Patrick C. Chikoti
- Zambia Agricultural Research Institute, Mt. Makulu Central Research Station, Chilanga, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Pawan K. Singh
- International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center, Global Wheat Program, CIMMYT, El Batán, Texcoco, México
- * E-mail: (RMM); (PKS)
| | - Xinyao He
- International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center, Global Wheat Program, CIMMYT, El Batán, Texcoco, México
| | - Kerry F. Pedley
- Foreign Disease-Weed Science Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture–Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS), Ft. Detrick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Gary L. Peterson
- Foreign Disease-Weed Science Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture–Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS), Ft. Detrick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Ravi P. Singh
- International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center, Global Wheat Program, CIMMYT, El Batán, Texcoco, México
| | - Hans J. Braun
- International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center, Global Wheat Program, CIMMYT, El Batán, Texcoco, México
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14
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Fones HN, Bebber DP, Chaloner TM, Kay WT, Steinberg G, Gurr SJ. Threats to global food security from emerging fungal and oomycete crop pathogens. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 1:332-342. [PMID: 37128085 DOI: 10.1038/s43016-020-0075-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2019] [Accepted: 04/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Emerging fungal and oomycete pathogens infect staple calorie crops and economically important commodity crops, thereby posing a significant risk to global food security. Our current agricultural systems - with emphasis on intensive monoculture practices - and globalized markets drive the emergence and spread of new pathogens and problematic traits, such as fungicide resistance. Climate change further promotes the emergence of pathogens on new crops and in new places. Here we review the factors affecting the introduction and spread of pathogens and current disease control strategies, illustrating these with the historic example of the Irish potato famine and contemporary examples of soybean rust, wheat blast and blotch, banana wilt and cassava root rot. Our Review looks to the future, summarizing what we see as the main challenges and knowledge gaps, and highlighting the direction that research must take to face the challenge of emerging crop pathogens.
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15
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Evidence for Allele-Specific Levels of Enhanced Susceptibility of Wheat mlo Mutants to the Hemibiotrophic Fungal Pathogen Magnaporthe oryzae pv. Triticum. Genes (Basel) 2020; 11:genes11050517. [PMID: 32392723 PMCID: PMC7720134 DOI: 10.3390/genes11050517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2020] [Revised: 04/28/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Barley mlo mutants are well known for their profound resistance against powdery mildew disease. Recently, mlo mutant plants were generated in hexaploid bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) with the help of transgenic (transcription-activator-like nuclease, TALEN) and non-transgenic (targeted induced local lesions in genomes, TILLING) biotechnological approaches. While full-gene knockouts in the three wheat Mlo (TaMlo) homoeologs, created via TALEN, confer full resistance to the wheat powdery mildew pathogen (Blumeria graminis f.sp. tritici), the currently available TILLING-derived Tamlo missense mutants provide only partial protection against powdery mildew attack. Here, we studied the infection phenotypes of TALEN- and TILLING-derived Tamlo plants to the two hemibiotrophic pathogens Zymoseptoria tritici, causing Septoria leaf blotch in wheat, and Magnaporthe oryzae pv. Triticum (MoT), the causal agent of wheat blast disease. While Tamlo plants showed unaltered outcomes upon challenge with Z. tritici, we found evidence for allele-specific levels of enhanced susceptibility to MoT, with stronger powdery mildew resistance correlated with more invasive growth by the blast pathogen. Surprisingly, unlike barley mlo mutants, young wheat mlo mutant plants do not show undesired pleiotropic phenotypes such as spontaneous callose deposits in leaf mesophyll cells or signs of early leaf senescence. In conclusion, our study provides evidence for allele-specific levels of enhanced susceptibility of Tamlo plants to the hemibiotrophic wheat pathogen MoT.
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16
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Asuke S, Tanaka M, Hyon GS, Inoue Y, Vy TTP, Niwamoto D, Nakayashiki H, Tosa Y. Evolution of an Eleusine-Specific Subgroup of Pyricularia oryzae Through a Gain of an Avirulence Gene. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2020; 33:153-165. [PMID: 31804154 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-03-19-0083-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Eleusine isolates (members of the Eleusine pathotype) of Pyricularia oryzae are divided into two subgroups, EC-I and EC-II, differentiated by molecular markers. A multilocus phylogenetic analysis revealed that these subgroups are very close to Eragrostis isolates. EC-II and Eragrostis isolates were exclusively virulent on finger millet and weeping lovegrass, respectively, while EC-I isolates were virulent on both. The avirulence of EC-II on weeping lovegrass was conditioned by an avirulence gene, PWL1. All EC-II isolates shared a peculiar structure (P structure) that was considered to be produced by an insertion (or translocation) of a DNA fragment carrying PWL1. On the other hand, all EC-I and Eragrostis isolates were noncarriers of PWL1 and shared a gene structure that should have predated the insertion of the PWL1-containing fragment. These results, together with phylogenetic analyses using whole-genome sequences, suggest that the Eleusine-specific subgroup (EC-II) evolved through a loss of pathogenicity on weeping lovegrass caused by a gain of PWL1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soichiro Asuke
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Nada, Kobe 657-8501, Japan
| | - Masaki Tanaka
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Nada, Kobe 657-8501, Japan
| | - Gang-Su Hyon
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Nada, Kobe 657-8501, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Inoue
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
| | - Trinh Thi Phuong Vy
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Nada, Kobe 657-8501, Japan
| | - Daisuke Niwamoto
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Nada, Kobe 657-8501, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Nakayashiki
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Nada, Kobe 657-8501, Japan
| | - Yukio Tosa
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Nada, Kobe 657-8501, Japan
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17
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Thierry M, Gladieux P, Fournier E, Tharreau D, Ioos R. A Genomic Approach to Develop a New qPCR Test Enabling Detection of the Pyricularia oryzae Lineage Causing Wheat Blast. PLANT DISEASE 2020; 104:60-70. [PMID: 31647693 DOI: 10.1094/pdis-04-19-0685-re] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Rapid detection is key to managing emerging diseases because it allows their spread around the world to be monitored and limited. The first major wheat blast epidemics were reported in 1985 in the Brazilian state of Paraná. Following this outbreak, the disease quickly spread to neighboring regions and countries and, in 2016, the first report of wheat blast disease outside South America was released. This Asian outbreak was due to the trade of infected South American seed, demonstrating the importance of detection tests in order to avoid importing contaminated biological material into regions free from the pathogen. Genomic analysis has revealed that one particular lineage within the fungal species Pyricularia oryzae is associated with this disease: the Triticum lineage. A comparison of 81 Pyricularia genomes highlighted polymorphisms specific to the Triticum lineage, and this study developed a real-time PCR test targeting one of these polymorphisms. The test's performance was then evaluated in order to measure its analytical specificity, analytical sensitivity, and robustness. The C17 quantitative PCR test detected isolates belonging to the Triticum lineage with high sensitivity, down to 13 plasmid copies or 1 pg of genomic DNA per reaction tube. The blast-based approach developed here to study P. oryzae can be transposed to other emerging diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maud Thierry
- UMR BGPI, Montpellier University, INRA, CIRAD, Montpellier SupAgro, Montpellier, France
- CIRAD, UMR BGPI, F-34398 Montpellier, France
- ANSES Plant Health Laboratory, Mycology Unit, Domaine de Pixérécourt, Bâtiment E, F-54220 Malzéville, France
| | - Pierre Gladieux
- UMR BGPI, Montpellier University, INRA, CIRAD, Montpellier SupAgro, Montpellier, France
| | - Elisabeth Fournier
- UMR BGPI, Montpellier University, INRA, CIRAD, Montpellier SupAgro, Montpellier, France
| | - Didier Tharreau
- UMR BGPI, Montpellier University, INRA, CIRAD, Montpellier SupAgro, Montpellier, France
- CIRAD, UMR BGPI, F-34398 Montpellier, France
| | - Renaud Ioos
- ANSES Plant Health Laboratory, Mycology Unit, Domaine de Pixérécourt, Bâtiment E, F-54220 Malzéville, France
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18
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Mercier A, Carpentier F, Duplaix C, Auger A, Pradier JM, Viaud M, Gladieux P, Walker AS. The polyphagous plant pathogenic fungus Botrytis cinerea encompasses host-specialized and generalist populations. Environ Microbiol 2019; 21:4808-4821. [PMID: 31608584 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.14829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2019] [Revised: 10/08/2019] [Accepted: 10/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The host plant is often the main variable explaining population structure in fungal plant pathogens, because specialization contributes to reduce gene flow between populations associated with different hosts. Previous population genetic analysis revealed that French populations of the grey mould pathogen Botrytis cinerea were structured by hosts tomato and grapevine, suggesting host specialization in this highly polyphagous pathogen. However, these findings raised questions about the magnitude of this specialization and the possibility of specialization to other hosts. Here we report specialization of B. cinerea populations to tomato and grapevine hosts but not to other tested plants. Population genetic analysis revealed two pathogen clusters associated with tomato and grapevine, while the other clusters co-occurred on hydrangea, strawberry and bramble. Measurements of quantitative pathogenicity were consistent with host specialization of populations found on tomato, and to a lesser extent, populations found on grapevine. Pathogen populations from hydrangea and strawberry appeared to be generalist, while populations from bramble may be weakly specialized. Our results suggest that the polyphagous B. cinerea is more accurately described as a collection of generalist and specialist individuals in populations. This work opens new perspectives for grey mould management, while suggesting spatial optimization of crop organization within agricultural landscapes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex Mercier
- UMR BIOGER, INRA, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, Thiverval-Grignon, France.,Université Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, Orsay, France
| | - Florence Carpentier
- UMR BIOGER, INRA, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, Thiverval-Grignon, France.,UR MaIAGE, INRA, Université Paris-Saclay, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Clémentine Duplaix
- UMR BIOGER, INRA, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, Thiverval-Grignon, France
| | - Annie Auger
- UMR BIOGER, INRA, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, Thiverval-Grignon, France
| | - Jean-Marc Pradier
- UMR BIOGER, INRA, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, Thiverval-Grignon, France
| | - Muriel Viaud
- UMR BIOGER, INRA, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, Thiverval-Grignon, France
| | - Pierre Gladieux
- UMR BGPI, INRA, CIRAD, Montpellier Supagro, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Anne-Sophie Walker
- UMR BIOGER, INRA, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, Thiverval-Grignon, France
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