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Viljanen M, Muranen S, Kinnunen O, Kalbfleisch S, Svedström K. Structure of cellulose in birch phloem fibres in tension wood: an X-ray nanodiffraction study. PLANT METHODS 2023; 19:58. [PMID: 37328911 DOI: 10.1186/s13007-023-01036-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND To gain a better understanding of bark layer structure and function, especially of the phloem fibres and their contribution to the posture control of trees, it is important to map the structural properties of these cells. The role of bark can also be linked to the reaction wood formation and properties which are essential when it comes to studying the questions related to tree growth. To offer new insights into the role of bark in the postural control of trees, we studied the micro- and nanoscale structures of the phloem and its nearest layers. This study is the first time, in which phloem fibres in trees have been extensively examined using X-ray diffraction (XRD). We determined the orientation of cellulose microfibrils in phloem fibres of Silver birch saplings by using scanning synchrotron nanodiffraction. The samples consisted of phloem fibres extracted from tension, opposite and normal wood (TW, OW, NW). RESULTS Using scanning XRD, we were able to obtain new information about the mean microfibril angle (MFA) in cellulose microfibrils in phloem fibres connected to reaction wood. A slight but consistent difference was detected in the average MFA values of phloem fibres between the TW and OW sides of the stem. Using scanning XRD, different contrast agents (intensity of the main cellulose reflection or calcium oxalate reflection, mean MFA value) were used to produce 2D images with 200 nm spatial resolution. CONCLUSIONS Based on our results, the tension wood formation in the stem might be related to the structure and properties of phloem fibres. Thus, our results suggest that the nanostructure of phloem fibres is involved in the postural control of trees containing tension and opposite wood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mira Viljanen
- Department of Physics, University of Helsinki, (Gustaf Hällströmin Katu 2), P.O. Box 64, 00014, Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Sampo Muranen
- Viikki Plant Science Centre, Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, (Viikinkaari 1), P.O. Box 65, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Outi Kinnunen
- Department of Physics, University of Helsinki, (Gustaf Hällströmin Katu 2), P.O. Box 64, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | | | - Kirsi Svedström
- Department of Physics, University of Helsinki, (Gustaf Hällströmin Katu 2), P.O. Box 64, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
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Liu L, Luan Y, Fang C, Hu J, Chang S, Fei B. Structural Characteristics of Reaction Tissue in Plants. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:1705. [PMID: 37111927 PMCID: PMC10146549 DOI: 10.3390/plants12081705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
To maintain or adjust posture under the challenges of gravity and increased self-weight, or the effects of light, snow, and slope, plants have the ability to develop a special type of tissue called reaction tissue. The formation of reaction tissue is a result of plant evolution and adaptation. The identification and study of plant reaction tissue are of great significance for understanding the systematics and evolution of plants, the processing and utilization of plant-based materials, and the exploration of new biomimetic materials and biological templates. Trees' reaction tissues have been studied for many years, and recently, many new findings regarding these tissues have been reported. However, reaction tissue requires further detailed exploration, particularly due to their complex and diverse nature. Moreover, the reaction tissues in gymnosperms, vines, herbs, etc., which display unique biomechanical behavior, have also garnered the attention of research. After summarizing the existing literature, this paper provides an outline of the reaction tissues in woody plants and non-woody plants, and lays emphasis on alternations in the cell wall structure of the xylem in softwood and hardwood. The purpose of this paper is to provide a reference for the further exploration and study of reaction tissues with great diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Litong Liu
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410004, China
- International Centre for Bamboo and Rattan, Beijing 100102, China (B.F.)
- Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration/Beijing for Bamboo & Rattan Science and Technology, Beijing 100102, China
| | - Yu Luan
- International Centre for Bamboo and Rattan, Beijing 100102, China (B.F.)
- Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration/Beijing for Bamboo & Rattan Science and Technology, Beijing 100102, China
| | - Changhua Fang
- International Centre for Bamboo and Rattan, Beijing 100102, China (B.F.)
- Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration/Beijing for Bamboo & Rattan Science and Technology, Beijing 100102, China
| | - Jinbo Hu
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410004, China
| | - Shanshan Chang
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410004, China
| | - Benhua Fei
- International Centre for Bamboo and Rattan, Beijing 100102, China (B.F.)
- Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration/Beijing for Bamboo & Rattan Science and Technology, Beijing 100102, China
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3
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Transcriptomic Evidence Reveals Low Gelatinous Layer Biosynthesis in Neolamarckia cadamba after Gravistimulation. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 24:ijms24010268. [PMID: 36613711 PMCID: PMC9820806 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24010268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2022] [Revised: 11/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Trees can control their shape and resist gravity by producing tension wood (TW), which is a special wood that results from trees being put under stress. TW is characterized by the presence of a gelatinous layer (G layer) and the differential distribution of cell wall polymers. In this study, we investigated whether or not gravistimulation in N. cadamba resulted in TW with an obvious G layer. The results revealed an absence of an obvious G layer in samples of the upper side of a leaning stem (UW), as well as an accumulation of cellulose and a decrease in lignin content. A negligible change in the content of these polymers was recorded and compared to untreated plant (NW) samples, revealing the presence of a G layer either in much lower concentrations or in a lignified form. A transcriptomic investigation demonstrated a higher expression of cell wall esterase- and hydrolase-related genes in the UW, suggesting an accumulation of noncellulosic sugars in the UW, similar to the spectroscopy results. Furthermore, several G-layer-specific genes were also downregulated, including fasciclin-like arabinogalactan proteins (FLA), beta-galactosidase (BGAL) and chitinase-like proteins (CTL). The gene coexpression network revealed a strong correlation between cell-wall-synthesis-related genes and G-layer-synthesis-specific genes, suggesting their probable antagonistic role during G layer formation. In brief, the G layer in N. cadamba was either synthesized in a very low amount or was lignified during an early stage of growth; further experimental validation is required to understand the exact mechanism and stage of G layer formation in N. cadamba during gravistimulation.
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Sreekantan S, Arunima Kirali A, Marimuthu B. Enhanced one-pot selective conversion of cellulose to ethylene glycol over NaZSM-5 supported metal catalysts. NEW J CHEM 2021. [DOI: 10.1039/d1nj03257g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The mesopores/micropores NaZSM-5 was synthesised by sol–gel method. The 5%Al–8%Ni–25%W/NaZSM-5 catalyst exhibited the highest cellulose conversion of 100% with EG yield as high as 89% (C mol%) at moderate reaction conditions which is highly applicable in polymer Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sreejith Sreekantan
- Catalysis & Inorganic Chemistry Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Dr Homi Baba Road, Pune - 411008, India
| | - Arun Arunima Kirali
- Catalysis & Inorganic Chemistry Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Dr Homi Baba Road, Pune - 411008, India
| | - Banu Marimuthu
- Catalysis & Inorganic Chemistry Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Dr Homi Baba Road, Pune - 411008, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, 201002, India
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Xiao Y, Yi F, Ling J, Wang Z, Zhao K, Lu N, Qu G, Kong L, Ma W, Wang J. Transcriptomics and Proteomics Reveal the Cellulose and Pectin Metabolic Processes in the Tension Wood (Non-G-Layer) of Catalpa bungei. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E1686. [PMID: 32121503 PMCID: PMC7084593 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21051686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2020] [Revised: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
: Catalpa bungei is an economically important tree with high-quality wood and highly valuable to the study of wood formation. In this work, the xylem microstructure of C. bungei tension wood (TW) was observed, and we performed transcriptomics, proteomics and Raman spectroscopy of TW, opposite wood (OW) and normal wood (NW). The results showed that there was no obvious gelatinous layer (G-layer) in the TW of C. bungei and that the secondary wall deposition in the TW was reduced compared with that in the OW and NW. We found that most of the differentially expressed mRNAs and proteins were involved in carbohydrate polysaccharide synthesis. Raman spectroscopy results indicated that the cellulose and pectin content and pectin methylation in the TW were lower than those in the OW and NW, and many genes and proteins involved in the metabolic pathways of cellulose and pectin, such as galacturonosyltransferase (GAUT), polygalacturonase (PG), endoglucanase (CLE) and β-glucosidase (BGLU) genes, were significantly upregulated in TW. In addition, we found that the MYB2 transcription factor may regulate the pectin degradation genes PG1 and PG3, and ARF, ERF, SBP and MYB1 may be the key transcription factors regulating the synthesis and decomposition of cellulose. In contrast to previous studies on TW with a G-layer, our results revealed a change in metabolism in TW without a G-layer, and we inferred that the change in the pectin type, esterification and cellulose characteristics in the TW of C. bungei may contribute to high tensile stress. These results will enrich the understanding of the mechanism of TW formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Tree Genetics and Breeding, Key Laboratory of Tree Breeding and Cultivation of State Forestry Administration, Research Institute of Forestry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China; (Y.X.); (F.Y.); (J.L.); (Z.W.); (N.L.); (W.M.)
| | - Fei Yi
- State Key Laboratory of Tree Genetics and Breeding, Key Laboratory of Tree Breeding and Cultivation of State Forestry Administration, Research Institute of Forestry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China; (Y.X.); (F.Y.); (J.L.); (Z.W.); (N.L.); (W.M.)
| | - Juanjuan Ling
- State Key Laboratory of Tree Genetics and Breeding, Key Laboratory of Tree Breeding and Cultivation of State Forestry Administration, Research Institute of Forestry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China; (Y.X.); (F.Y.); (J.L.); (Z.W.); (N.L.); (W.M.)
| | - Zhi Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Tree Genetics and Breeding, Key Laboratory of Tree Breeding and Cultivation of State Forestry Administration, Research Institute of Forestry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China; (Y.X.); (F.Y.); (J.L.); (Z.W.); (N.L.); (W.M.)
| | - Kun Zhao
- Luoyang Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Science, Luoyang 471002, China;
| | - Nan Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Tree Genetics and Breeding, Key Laboratory of Tree Breeding and Cultivation of State Forestry Administration, Research Institute of Forestry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China; (Y.X.); (F.Y.); (J.L.); (Z.W.); (N.L.); (W.M.)
| | - Guanzheng Qu
- State Key Laboratory of Tree Genetics and Breeding, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China;
| | - Lisheng Kong
- Department of Biology, Centre for Forest Biology, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Road, Victoria, BC V8P5C2, Canada;
| | - Wenjun Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Tree Genetics and Breeding, Key Laboratory of Tree Breeding and Cultivation of State Forestry Administration, Research Institute of Forestry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China; (Y.X.); (F.Y.); (J.L.); (Z.W.); (N.L.); (W.M.)
| | - Junhui Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Tree Genetics and Breeding, Key Laboratory of Tree Breeding and Cultivation of State Forestry Administration, Research Institute of Forestry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China; (Y.X.); (F.Y.); (J.L.); (Z.W.); (N.L.); (W.M.)
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Decou R, Labrousse P, Béré E, Fleurat-Lessard P, Krausz P. Structural features in tension wood and distribution of wall polymers in the G-layer of in vitro grown poplars. PROTOPLASMA 2020; 257:13-29. [PMID: 31321553 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-019-01416-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2019] [Accepted: 07/08/2019] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Under the effect of disturbances, like unbalanced stem, but also during normal development, poplar trees can develop a specific secondary xylem, called "tension wood" (TW), which is easily identifiable by the presence of a gelatinous layer in the secondary cell walls (SCW) of the xylem fibers. Since TW formation was mainly performed on 2-year-old poplar models, an in vitro poplar that produces gelatinous fibers (G-fibers) while offering the same experimental advantages as herbaceous plants has been developed. Using specific cell wall staining techniques, wood structural features and lignin/cellulose distribution were both detailed in cross-sections obtained from the curved stem part of in vitro poplars. A supposed delay in the SCW lignification process in the G-fibers, along with the presence of a G-layer, could be observed in the juvenile plants. Moreover, in this G-layer, the immunolabeling of various polymers carried out in the SCW of TW has allowed detecting crystalline cellulose, arabinogalactans proteins, and rhamnogalacturonans I; however, homogalacturonans, xylans, and xyloglucans could not be found. Interestingly, extensins were detected in this typical adaptative or stress-induced structure. These observations were corroborated by a quantitation of the immunorecognized polymer distribution using gold particle labeling. In conclusion, the in vitro poplar model seems highly convenient for TW studies focusing on the implementation of wall polymers that provide the cell wall with greater plasticity in adapting to the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raphaël Decou
- University of Limoges, PEIRENE, EA 7500, F-87000, Limoges, France.
- Laboratoire de chimie des Substances naturelles, University of Limoges, UPRES EA 1069, F-87000, Limoges, France.
| | - Pascal Labrousse
- University of Limoges, PEIRENE, EA 7500, F-87000, Limoges, France
| | - Emile Béré
- Campus Sciences, Image UP, Service de Microscopie Electronique et Photonique, Pôle Biologie Santé, University of Poitiers, F-86022, Poitiers Cedex 9, France
| | - Pierrette Fleurat-Lessard
- Campus Sciences, Image UP, Service de Microscopie Electronique et Photonique, Pôle Biologie Santé, University of Poitiers, F-86022, Poitiers Cedex 9, France
- Ecologie & Biologie des Interactions, University of Poitiers, UMR CNRS 7267, F-86073, Poitiers Cedex 9, France
| | - Pierre Krausz
- Laboratoire de chimie des Substances naturelles, University of Limoges, UPRES EA 1069, F-87000, Limoges, France
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Pramod S, Rajput KS, Rao KS. Immunolocalization of β-(1-4)-D-galactan, xyloglucans and xylans in the reaction xylem fibres of Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2019; 142:217-223. [PMID: 31310944 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2019.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2019] [Revised: 07/09/2019] [Accepted: 07/09/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Cell wall architecture of tension wood fibres represents a suitable biological system to study the mechanism of growth and maintenance of posture of trees growing under various physical and physiological growth constraints. In the present study, we investigated the spatial distributions of β-(1-4)-D-galactan, xyloglucan and xylans (both less and highly substituted) in the opposite and tension wood fibres of bent Leucaena leucocephala by immunolabelling with monoclonal antibodies LM5, CCRCM1, LM10 and LM11 specific to these carbohydrate epitopes. The presence of non-lignified, tertiary wall layer is the typical tension wood characteristic associated with the reaction xylem fibres in Leucaena. LM5 labelling of opposite fibres showed weak labelling in the cell walls indicating less concentration of β-(1-4)-D-galactans while tension wood showed strong labelling in the tertiary wall layer suggesting the gelatinous layer (G-layer) has a strong cross linking with β-(1-4)-D-galactans. Xyloglucan distribution was more in the compound middle lamellae and the primary wall-S1 layer boundary of tension wood fibres as compared to that of opposite wood. A weak labelling was also evident near the boundary between the G-layer and the secondary wall of tension wood fibres. The secondary wall of opposite and tension wood fibres showed a strong distribution of both ls ACG Xs (LM10) and hs ACG Xs (LM11) while a weak labelling was noticed in the compound middle lamella. Tension wood fibres also showed strong xylan labelling mainly confined to the lignified secondary walls while the G-layer showed weak xylan labelling. In conclusion, our results suggest that β-(1-4)-D-galactans and xyloglucans could be implicated in the tensile stress generation within the G-layer of tension wood fibres of Leucaena leucocephala.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Pramod
- Department of Botany, The Maharaja Sayajirao of Baroda, Vadodara, 390002, Gujarat, India.
| | - Kishore S Rajput
- Department of Botany, The Maharaja Sayajirao of Baroda, Vadodara, 390002, Gujarat, India
| | - Karumanchi S Rao
- Department of Biosciences, Sardar Patel University, Vallabh Vidyanagar, 388120, Gujarat, India
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Wang Q, Chang S, Tan Y, Hu J. Mesopore structure in Camellia Oleifera shell. PROTOPLASMA 2019; 256:1145-1151. [PMID: 30953174 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-019-01371-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 03/21/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Generally, Camellia oleifera shells are byproducts of edible oil production and are often incinerated or discarded as agricultural waste without any sustainable uses. Although numerous studies have focused on the C. oleifera shell, few studies have examined its biological characteristics, particularly its internal mesoporosity. The aim of the present study was to elucidate the microscopic biological structure of C. oleifera shells to explore their potential applications. Paraffin-embedded slices of C. oleifera shells were observed on different planes using an optical microscope. Supercritically dried samples were prepared and assessed using the nitrogen adsorption-desorption technique to reveal mesopore structural features. The present article shows that C. oleifera shells were mainly made up of stone cells, parenchyma tissue, spiral vessels, and vascular bundles. The key features of the cells were the pits in the cell walls of stone cells and vessels, which are associated with the abundant mesopores in C. oleifera shells. C. oleifera shells have an advantage over woody materials based on their mesoporosity features. C. oleifera shells are ideal raw materials that could serve as biomass templates or find applications as other high-performance biomimetic materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qianqian Wang
- College of Material Science and Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha, 410004, People's Republic of China
| | - Shanshan Chang
- College of Material Science and Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha, 410004, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yujing Tan
- College of Material Science and Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha, 410004, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinbo Hu
- College of Material Science and Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha, 410004, People's Republic of China.
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Clair B, Ghislain B, Prunier J, Lehnebach R, Beauchêne J, Alméras T. Mechanical contribution of secondary phloem to postural control in trees: the bark side of the force. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2019; 221:209-217. [PMID: 30076782 DOI: 10.1111/nph.15375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Accepted: 07/01/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
To grow straight, plants need a motor system that controls posture by generating forces to offset gravity. This motor function in trees was long thought to be only controlled by internal forces induced in wood. Here we provide evidence that bark is involved in the generation of mechanical stresses in several tree species. Saplings of nine tropical species were grown tilted and staked in a shadehouse and the change in curvature of the stem was measured after releasing from the pole and after removing the bark. This first experiment evidenced the contribution of bark in the up-righting movement of tree stems. Combined mechanical measurements of released strains on adult trees and microstructural observations in both transverse and longitudinal/tangential plane enabled us to identify the mechanism responsible for the development of asymmetric mechanical stress in the bark of stems of these species. This mechanism does not result from cell wall maturation like in wood, or from the direct action of turgor pressure like in unlignified organs, but is the consequence of the interaction between wood radial pressure and a smartly organized trellis structure in the inner bark.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Clair
- CNRS, UMR Ecologie des Forêts de Guyane (EcoFoG), AgroParisTech, CIRAD, INRA, Université des Antilles, Université de Guyane, 97310, Kourou, France
| | - Barbara Ghislain
- CNRS, UMR Ecologie des Forêts de Guyane (EcoFoG), AgroParisTech, CIRAD, INRA, Université des Antilles, Université de Guyane, 97310, Kourou, France
| | - Jonathan Prunier
- CNRS, UMR Ecologie des Forêts de Guyane (EcoFoG), AgroParisTech, CIRAD, INRA, Université des Antilles, Université de Guyane, 97310, Kourou, France
| | - Romain Lehnebach
- CNRS, UMR Ecologie des Forêts de Guyane (EcoFoG), AgroParisTech, CIRAD, INRA, Université des Antilles, Université de Guyane, 97310, Kourou, France
- LMGC, CNRS, Université de Montpellier, 34090, Montpellier, France
| | - Jacques Beauchêne
- CIRAD, UMR Ecologie des Forêts de Guyane (EcoFoG), AgroParisTech, CNRS, INRA, Université des Antilles, Université de Guyane, 97310, Kourou, France
| | - Tancrède Alméras
- LMGC, CNRS, Université de Montpellier, 34090, Montpellier, France
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10
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Gorshkova T, Chernova T, Mokshina N, Ageeva M, Mikshina P. Plant 'muscles': fibers with a tertiary cell wall. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2018; 218:66-72. [PMID: 29364532 DOI: 10.1111/nph.14997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2017] [Accepted: 12/15/2017] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Plants, although sessile organisms, are nonetheless able to move their body parts; for example, during root contraction of geophytes or in the gravitropic reaction by woody stems. One of the major mechanisms enabling these movements is the development of specialized structures that possess contractile properties. Quite unlike animal muscles, for which the action is driven by protein-protein interactions in the protoplasma, the action of plant 'muscles' is polysaccharide-based and located in the uniquely designed, highly cellulosic cell wall that is deposited specifically in fibers. This review describes the development of such cell walls as a widespread phenomenon in the plant kingdom, gives reasons why it should be considered as a tertiary cell wall, and discusses the mechanism of action of the 'muscles'. The origin of the contractile properties lies in the tension of the axially oriented cellulose microfibrils due to entrapment of rhamnogalacturonan-I aggregates that limits the lateral interaction of microfibrils. Long side chains of the nascent rhamnogalacturonan-I are trimmed off during cell wall maturation leading to tension development. Similarities in the tertiary cell wall design in fibers of different plant origin indicate that the basic principles of tension creation may be universal in various ecophysiological situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatyana Gorshkova
- Kazan Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Kazan Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Lobachevsky Str., 2/31, Kazan, 420111, Russian Federation
| | - Tatyana Chernova
- Kazan Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Kazan Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Lobachevsky Str., 2/31, Kazan, 420111, Russian Federation
| | - Natalia Mokshina
- Kazan Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Kazan Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Lobachevsky Str., 2/31, Kazan, 420111, Russian Federation
| | - Marina Ageeva
- Kazan Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Kazan Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Lobachevsky Str., 2/31, Kazan, 420111, Russian Federation
| | - Polina Mikshina
- Kazan Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Kazan Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Lobachevsky Str., 2/31, Kazan, 420111, Russian Federation
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Clair B, Déjardin A, Pilate G, Alméras T. Is the G-Layer a Tertiary Cell Wall? FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2018; 9:623. [PMID: 29868079 PMCID: PMC5952352 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.00623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2018] [Accepted: 04/19/2018] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Clair
- CNRS, UMR EcoFoG, AgroParisTech, Cirad, INRA, Université des Antilles, Université de Guyane, Kourou, France
- *Correspondence: Bruno Clair
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Guedes FTP, Laurans F, Quemener B, Assor C, Lainé-Prade V, Boizot N, Vigouroux J, Lesage-Descauses MC, Leplé JC, Déjardin A, Pilate G. Non-cellulosic polysaccharide distribution during G-layer formation in poplar tension wood fibers: abundance of rhamnogalacturonan I and arabinogalactan proteins but no evidence of xyloglucan. PLANTA 2017; 246:857-878. [PMID: 28699115 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-017-2737-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 07/05/2017] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
RG-I and AGP, but not XG, are associated to the building of the peculiar mechanical properties of tension wood. Hardwood trees produce tension wood (TW) with specific mechanical properties to cope with environmental cues. Poplar TW fibers have an additional cell wall layer, the G-layer responsible for TW mechanical properties. We investigated, in two poplar hybrid species, the molecules potentially involved in the building of TW mechanical properties. First, we evaluated the distribution of the different classes of non-cellulosic polysaccharides during xylem fiber differentiation, using immunolocalization. In parallel, G-layers were isolated and their polysaccharide composition determined. These complementary approaches provided information on the occurrence of non-cellulosic polysaccharides during G-fiber differentiation. We found no evidence of the presence of xyloglucan (XG) in poplar G-layers, whereas arabinogalactan proteins (AGP) and rhamnogalacturonan type I pectins (RG-I) were abundant, with an apparent progressive loss of RG-I side chains during G-layer maturation. Similarly, the intensity of immunolabeling signals specific for glucomannans and glucuronoxylans varies during G-layer maturation. RG-I and AGP are best candidate matrix components to be responsible for TW mechanical properties.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Carole Assor
- BIA, INRA, 44316, Nantes, France
- IATE, INRA, 34060, Montpellier, France
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Alméras T, Clair B. Critical review on the mechanisms of maturation stress generation in trees. J R Soc Interface 2016; 13:20160550. [PMID: 27605169 PMCID: PMC5046956 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2016.0550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Accepted: 08/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Trees control their posture by generating asymmetric mechanical stress around the periphery of the trunk or branches. This stress is produced in wood during the maturation of the cell wall. When the need for reaction is high, it is accompanied by strong changes in cell organization and composition called reaction wood, namely compression wood in gymnosperms and tension wood in angiosperms. The process by which stress is generated in the cell wall during its formation is not yet known, and various hypothetical mechanisms have been proposed in the literature. Here we aim at discriminating between these models. First, we summarize current knowledge about reaction wood structure, state and behaviour relevant to the understanding of maturation stress generation. Then, the mechanisms proposed in the literature are listed and discussed in order to identify which can be rejected based on their inconsistency with current knowledge at the frontier between plant science and mechanical engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tancrède Alméras
- Laboratoire de Mécanique et Génie Civil (LMGC), CNRS, Université de Montpellier, cc 048, Place E. Bataillon, 34095 Montpellier, France
| | - Bruno Clair
- CNRS, UMR Ecologie des Forêts de Guyane (EcoFoG), AgroParisTech, Cirad, INRA, Université des Antilles, Université de Guyane, 97310 Kourou, France
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Roussel JR, Clair B. Evidence of the late lignification of the G-layer in Simarouba tension wood, to assist understanding how non-G-layer species produce tensile stress. TREE PHYSIOLOGY 2015; 35:1366-77. [PMID: 26427915 DOI: 10.1093/treephys/tpv082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2015] [Accepted: 08/01/2015] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
To recover verticality after disturbance, angiosperm trees produce 'tension wood' allowing them to bend actively. The driving force of the tension has been shown to take place in the G-layer, a specific unlignified layer of the cell wall observed in most temperate species. However, in tropical rain forests, the G-layer is often absent and the mechanism generating the forces to reorient trees remains unclear. A study was carried out on tilted seedlings, saplings and adult Simarouba amara Aubl. trees-a species known to not produce a G-layer. Microscopic observations were done on sections of normal and tension wood after staining or observed under UV light to assess the presence/absence of lignin. We showed that S. amara produces a cell-wall layer with all of the characteristics typical of G-layers, but that this G-layer can be observed only as a temporary stage of the cell-wall development because it is masked by a late lignification. Being thin and lignified, tension wood fibres cannot be distinguished from normal wood fibres in the mature wood of adult trees. These observations indicate that the mechanism generating the high tensile stress in tension wood is likely to be the same as that in species with a typical G-layer and also in species where the G-layer cannot be observed in mature cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Romain Roussel
- CNRS, UMR Ecologie des Forêts de Guyane (EcoFoG), Campus Agronomique, BP 701, 97387 Kourou, France
| | - Bruno Clair
- CNRS, UMR Ecologie des Forêts de Guyane (EcoFoG), Campus Agronomique, BP 701, 97387 Kourou, France
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