Meditation improves self-regulation over the life span

Mindfulness and Behavior Change

Initiating and maintaining behavior change is key to the prevention and treatment of most preventable chronic medical and psychiatric illnesses. The cultivation of mindfulness, involving acceptance and nonjudgment of present-moment experience, often results in transformative health behavior change. Neural systems involved in motivation and learning have an important role to play. A theoretical model of mindfulness that integrates these mechanisms with the cognitive, emotional, and self-related processes commonly described, while applying an integrated model to health behavior change, is needed. This integrative review (1) defines mindfulness and describes the mindfulness-based intervention movement, (2) synthesizes the neuroscience of mindfulness and integrates motivation and learning mechanisms within a mindful self-regulation model for understanding the complex effects of mindfulness on behavior change, and (3) synthesizes current clinical research evaluating the effects of mindfulness-based interventions targeting health behaviors relevant to psychiatric care. The review provides insight into the limitations of current research and proposes potential mechanisms to be tested in future research and targeted in clinical practice to enhance the impact of mindfulness on behavior change.

Changes in the Electrical Activity of the Brain in the Alpha and Theta Bands during Prayer and Meditation

Focused attention meditation (FAM) is a category of meditation based on an EEG pattern, which helps the wandering mind to focus on a particular object. It seems that prayer may, in certain respects, be similar to FAM. It is believed that emotional experience correlates mainly with theta, but also with selective alpha, with internalized attention correlating mainly with the synchronous activity of theta and alpha. The vast majority of studies indicate a possible impact of transcendence in meditation on the alpha wave in EEG. No such reports are available for prayer. Seventeen women and nineteen men aged 27–64 years with at least five years of intensive meditation/prayer experience were recruited to participate in the study. We identified the two largest groups which remained in the meditation trend originating from the Buddhist system (14 people) (Buddhist meditators) and in the Christian-based faith (15 people) (Christian meditators). EEG signal was recorded with open eyes, closed eyes, during meditation/prayer, and relaxation. After the EEG recording, an examination was conducted using the Scale of Spiritual Transcendence. Buddhist meditators exhibited a statistically significantly higher theta amplitude at Cz during meditation compared to relaxation. Meanwhile, spiritual openness favored a higher theta amplitude at Pz during relaxation. Our study did not reveal statistically significant differences in frontal areas with regard to alpha and theta, which was often indicated in previous studies. It seems necessary to analyze more closely the midline activity in terms of dispersed neural activity integration.

Autistic traits are associated with the functional connectivity of between-but not within-attention systems in the general population

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have demonstrated that individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) exhibit dysfunction in the three attention systems (i.e., alerting, orienting, and executive control) as well as atypical relationships among these systems. Additionally, other studies have reported that individuals with subclinical but high levels of autistic traits show similar attentional tendencies to those observed in ASD. Based on these findings, it was hypothesized that autistic traits would affect the functions and relationships of the three attention systems in a general population. Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was performed in 119 healthy adults to investigate relationships between autistic traits and within- and between-system functional connectivity (FC) among the three attention systems. Twenty-six regions of interest that were defined as components of the three attention systems by a previous task-based fMRI study were examined in terms of within- and between-system FC. We assessed autistic traits using the Autism-Spectrum Quotient.

RESULTS

Correlational analyses revealed that autistic traits were significantly correlated with between-system FC, but not with within-system FC.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results imply that a high autistic trait level, even when subclinical, is associated with the way the three attention systems interact.

The Attention Network Test Database: ADHD and Cross-Cultural Applications

Attention is a central component of cognitive and behavioral processes and plays a key role in basic and higher-level functioning. Posner's model of attention describes three components or networks of attention: the alerting, which involves high intensity states of arousal; the orienting, which involves the selective direction of attention; and the executive control, which involves cognitive functions such as conflict resolution and working memory. The Attention Network Test (ANT) is a computerized testing measure that was developed to measure these three networks of attention. This project describes the ANT, its widely used variants, and the recently developed ANT Database, a repository of data extracted from all studies that have used the ANT as of 2019. To illustrate the potential uses of the database, two meta-analyses conducted using the ANT Database are described. One explores task performance in children with and without attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The other one explores regional differences between studies conducted in China, Europe, and the United States. We are currently in the process of integrating the database into a publicly available web interface. When that work is complete, researchers, clinicians, and the general public will be able to use the database to explore topics of interest related to attention.

Real-time fMRI neurofeedback reduces auditory hallucinations and modulates resting state connectivity of involved brain regions: Part 2: Default mode network -preliminary evidence

Auditory hallucinations (AHs) are one of the most distressing symptoms of schizophrenia (SZ) and are often resistant to medication. Imaging studies of individuals with SZ show hyperactivation of the default mode network (DMN) and the superior temporal gyrus (STG). Studies in SZ show DMN hyperconnectivity and reduced anticorrelation between DMN and the central executive network (CEN). DMN hyperconnectivity has been associated with positive symptoms such as AHs while reduced DMN anticorrelations with cognitive impairment. Using real-time fMRI neurofeedback (rt-fMRI-NFB) we trained SZ patients to modulate DMN and CEN networks. Meditation is effective in reducing AHs in SZ and to modulate brain network integration and increase DMN anticorrelations. Consequently, patients were provided with meditation strategies to enhance their abilities to modulate DMN/CEN. Results show a reduction of DMN hyperconnectivity and increase in DMNCEN anticorrelation. Furthermore, the change in individual DMN connectivity significantly correlated with reductions in AHs. This is the first time that meditation enhanced through rt-fMRI-NFB is used to reduce AHs in SZ. Moreover, it provides the first empirical evidence for a direct causal relation between meditation enhanced rt-fMRI-NFB modulation of DMNCEN activity and post-intervention modulation of resting state networks ensuing in reductions in frequency and severity of AHs.

Psychoneuroendocrinoimmunology-based meditation (PNEIMED) training reduces salivary cortisol under basal and stressful conditions in healthy university students: Results of a randomized controlled study

BACKGROUND

Meditation represents an effective and safe practice to lower distress and promote well-being. PsychoNeuroEndocrinoImmunology-based Meditation (PNEIMED) is a validated method that can reduce stress-related symptoms and salivary cortisol secretion. To date, few randomised controlled trials (RCTs) have assessed cortisol levels through salivary samples, collected both in the morning phase and during acute mental stress elicitation, in healthy young subjects following brief meditation training.

AIM

The present study aims to investigate, in healthy young undergraduate students, the effects of a brief PNEIMED training course on HPA axis by measuring salivary cortisol levels.

METHODS

Forty students attending the Faculty of Psychology, without comorbidities and previous experience of meditation, were enrolled in the study. Twenty subjects were randomly assigned to 30 h of PNEIMED training (intervention group, IG), and twenty subjects were randomly assigned to 30 h of academic lessons (control group, CG). Salivary cortisol measures included basal morning (t0 = baseline time, collected 30 min after waking) and under stress-eliciting task values. Cortisol measurement under the stress-eliciting task was provided through the Subtraction Stress Task (SST) at scheduled time intervals (t1 = 5 min pre-SST, t2 = 10 min post-SST, t3 = 30 min = post-SST). Salivary cortisol was measured among all subjects (IG + CG) at the beginning (pre-test) and at the end (post-test, four days later) of the study.

RESULTS

ANOVA between-group analysis of basal diurnal salivary cortisol showed a significant hormone deflection in the IG at the end of the PNEIMED course (post-test) when compared to the CG (IG post-test 5.64 ± 4.2 vs CG post-test 9.44 ± 4.9; F_1,38 = 6.838; p = 0.013). RM-ANOVA within-group analysis for the IG also showed that time and condition effects were statistically significant, with Ftime = 5.438; p = 0.002 and Fcondition = 10.478; p = 0.004, respectively. The IG group presented a significant reduction in basal morning cortisol at the end of the PNEIMED course (post-test) compared to the salivary concentration at baseline (pre-test) (IG pre-test 9.42 ± 6.0 vs IG post-test 5.64 ± 4.2; F_1,38 8,354; p = 0.009). RM-ANOVA for the control group showed only the main effect of time (F_1,38 = 40.348; p < 0.001). Regarding cortisol measures under the SST-stress eliciting task, ANOVA between-groups analysis showed higher cortisol levels in the IG than in the CG before the PNEIMED course, with significant differences between groups at time t2 and time t3. After the PNEIMED course, the cortisol levels in the IG had decreased, although the differences between groups were not significant. Interestingly, ANOVA within-groups analysis showed that in the IG, the cortisol levels post-test (after the PNEIMED course) were lower than at pre-test (before the PNEIMED course), showing a significant difference of cortisol salivary concentration between conditions at t3 (F = 5.326; p = 0.032). In the control group, the post-hoc analyses for pairwise comparisons between conditions (pre-test vs post-test) did not show significant differences.

CONCLUSION

Although the low number of subjects enrolled in the study does not allow for definitive conclusions to be drawn, the present findings confirmed the capability of the PNEIMED method to lower stress hormone secretion both at baseline and under acute mental stimulation in a group of young naïve practitioners and make a contribution to the existing literature by increasing the number of published RCTs about the topic.

From State-to-Trait Meditation: Reconfiguration of Central Executive and Default Mode Networks

While brain default mode network (DMN) activation in human subjects has been associated with mind wandering, meditation practice has been found to suppress it and to increase psychological well-being. In addition to DMN activity reduction, experienced meditators (EMs) during meditation practice show an increased connectivity between the DMN and the central executive network (CEN).

While brain default mode network (DMN) activation in human subjects has been associated with mind wandering, meditation practice has been found to suppress it and to increase psychological well-being. In addition to DMN activity reduction, experienced meditators (EMs) during meditation practice show an increased connectivity between the DMN and the central executive network (CEN). However, the gradual change between DMN and CEN configuration from pre-meditation, during meditation, and post-meditation is unknown. Here, we investigated the change in DMN and CEN configuration by means of brain activity and functional connectivity (FC) analyses in EMs across three back-to-back functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans: pre-meditation baseline (trait), meditation (state), and post-meditation (state-to-trait). Pre-meditation baseline group comparison was also performed between EMs and healthy controls (HCs). Meditation trait was characterized by a significant reduction in activity and FC within DMN and increased anticorrelations between DMN and CEN. Conversely, meditation state and meditation state-to-trait periods showed increased activity and FC within the DMN and between DMN and CEN. However, the latter anticorrelations were only present in EMs with limited practice. The interactions between networks during these states by means of positive diametric activity (PDA) of the fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (fALFFs) defined as CEN fALFF¯ − DMN fALFF¯ revealed no trait differences but significant increases during meditation state that persisted in meditation state-to-trait. The gradual reconfiguration in DMN and CEN suggest a neural mechanism by which the CEN negatively regulates the DMN and is probably responsible for the long-term trait changes seen in meditators and reported psychological well-being.

Mindfulness-based therapy modulates default-mode network connectivity in patients with opioid dependence

Recently, mindfulness-based programs have shown promising clinical effects in the treatment of substance-use disorders (SUD). While several studies linked mindfulness to decreased default mode network (DMN) connectivity in meditators, only a few studies investigated its effects in patients with SUD. This study aimed to detect changes in DMN connectivity in opiate dependent patients receiving mindfulness based therapy (MBT) during their first month of treatment. Data from 32 patients that were assigned to MBT or treatment as usual (TAU) groups was investigated using resting-state functional MRI at 1.5 T before and after four weeks of treatment. Independent Component Analysis was used to investigate distinct (anterior vs. posterior) DMN subsystems. Connectivity changes after treatment were related to measures of impulsivity, distress tolerance and mindfulness. Increased mindfulness scores after treatment were found in patients receiving MBT compared to TAU. Within the anterior DMN, decreased right inferior frontal cortical connectivity was detected in patients who received MBT compared to TAU. In addition, within the MBT-group decreased right superior frontal cortex connectivity was detected after treatment. Inferior frontal cortex function was significantly associated with mindfulness measures. The data suggest that MBT can be useful during abstinence from opiates. In opiate-dependent patients distinct functional connectivity changes within the DMN are associated with MBT.

Neural measures of anticipatory bodily attention in children: Relations with executive function

The ability to selectively direct attention to a certain location or modality is a key neurocognitive skill. One important facet of selective attention is anticipation, a foundational biological construct that bridges basic perceptual processes and higher-order cognition. The current study focuses on the neural correlates of bodily anticipation in 6- to 8-year-old children using a task involving tactile stimulation. Electroencephalographic (EEG) activity over sensorimotor cortex was measured after a visual cue directed children to monitor their right or left hand in anticipation of tactile stimulation. Prior to delivery of the tactile stimulus, a regionally-specific desynchronization of the alpha-range mu rhythm occurred over central electrode sites (C3/C4) contralateral to the cue direction. The magnitude of anticipatory mu rhythm desynchronization was associated with children's performance on two executive function tasks (Flanker and Card Sort). We suggest that anticipatory mu desynchronization has utility as a specific neural marker of attention focusing in young children, which in turn may be implicated in the development of executive function.

Mindfulness for children with ADHD and Mindful Parenting (MindChamp): Protocol of a randomised controlled trial comparing a family Mindfulness-Based Intervention as an add-on to care-as-usual with care-as-usual only

BACKGROUND

Self-control in childhood has been linked to long-term and cascading effects on health, academic, criminality, wealth and parenting outcomes. Hence it is important to target self-control deficits early in life. Self-control deficits are a hallmark of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Even after receiving care-as-usual (CAU) for ADHD, impaired self-control often remains. Pharmacotherapy can be hampered by side-effects, low adherence and short-term effectiveness. Other limitations of CAU are decreased effectiveness when parents have ADHD and little effect on parental well-being. Mindfulness-Based Interventions (MBIs) are an emerging non-pharmacological approach with potential to improve self-control and well-being in both children and parents. However, there is a lack of sufficiently powered randomised controlled trials (RCTs) to establish their effects in families with ADHD. This study protocol describes an RCT to investigate the effectiveness of a family MBI as an add-on to CAU in treatment of youth with ADHD, and is described in accordance with Standard Protocol Items: Recommendations for Interventional Trials (SPIRIT).

METHODS/DESIGN

An RCT will be conducted in N = 100 children (aged 8-16 years) with ADHD and their parents. The experimental condition will consist of a family MBI (MYmind): 8-week group-based MBI for youth combined with parallel group-based Mindful Parenting for their parents, as an add-on to CAU. The control condition will consist of CAU-only. Assessments will take place at baseline, end of treatment (3 months later), 2 and 6 months' follow-up. Primary outcome measure will be an ecologically valid assessment of child self-control with the parent-rated Behaviour Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF). Secondary child outcome measures will be teacher-rated BRIEF, computerised self-control tasks and questionnaires on psychological symptoms (e.g. ADHD, symptoms of autism), well-being and mindfulness. For parental outcomes, secondary measures will be self-rated BRIEF, computerised self-control tasks and questionnaires on psychological symptoms, well-being and mindful parenting.

DISCUSSION

The proposed RCT will take account of methodological limitations of previous studies on MBIs in child ADHD populations. The current study will provide valuable information on family MBI as a potential effective intervention in targeting self-control deficits for youth with ADHD and their parents.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03220308 . Retrospectively registered 18 July 2017.

Personalised relaxation practice to improve sleep and functioning in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome and depression: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) and major depressive disorder (MDD) are both debilitating but heterogeneous conditions sharing core features of fatigue, unrefreshing sleep, and impaired functioning. The aetiology of these conditions is not fully understood, and 'best-practice' treatments are only moderately effective in relieving symptoms. Unrecognised individual differences in the response to such treatments are likely to underlie poor treatment outcomes.

METHODS/DESIGN

We are undertaking a two-group, parallel, randomised controlled trial (RCT) comparing the effects of a personalised relaxation intervention on sleep quality, daytime symptoms, and functioning in patients with CFS (n = 64) and MDD (n = 64). Following identification of the method that best enhances autonomic responding (such as heart rate variability), participants randomised to the active intervention will practise their recommended method nightly for 4 weeks. All participants will keep a sleep diary and monitor symptoms during the trial period, and they will complete two face-to-face assessments, one at baseline and one at 4 weeks, and a further online assessment to evaluate lasting effects of the intervention at 2 months. Assessments include self-report measures of sleep, wellbeing, and function and monitoring of autonomic responses at rest, in response to the relaxation method and during nocturnal sleep. Treatment outcomes will be analysed using linear mixed modelling.

DISCUSSION

This is the first RCT examining the effects of a personalised relaxation intervention, pre-tested to maximise the autonomic relaxation response, in patients with unrefreshing sleep and fatigue attributed to CFS or MDD. Detailed monitoring of sleep quality and symptoms will enable sensitive detection of improvements in the core symptoms of these debilitating conditions. In addition, repeated monitoring of autonomic functioning can elucidate mechanisms underlying potential benefits. The findings have translational potential, informing novel, personalised symptom management techniques for these conditions, with the potential for better clinical outcomes.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Australian and New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR), ACTRN12616001671459 . Registered on 5 December 2016.

Mindfulness-based interventions modulate structural network strength in patients with opioid dependence

Mindfulness-based interventions (MBI) are increasingly used in the treatment of patients with mental disorders, in particular in individuals presenting with affective disorders or in patients exhibiting abnormal levels of impulsive behavior. MBI have been also offered to patients with substance use disorders, where such treatment options may yield considerable clinical effects. Neural effects associated with MBI have been increasingly acknowledged, but is unknown whether MBI exert specific effects on brain structure in patients with substance use disorders. In this study, we investigated 19 inpatients with opioid dependence receiving treatment-as-usual (TAU, n = 9) or additional MBI (n = 10). Structural magnetic resonance imaging data were acquired before and after four weeks of treatment. Source-based morphometry was used to investigate modulation of structural networks after treatment. Both treatment modalities led to significant clinical improvement. Patients receiving MBI showed a significant change in distress tolerance levels. An increase in bilateral striatal/insular and prefrontal/cingulate network strength was found in patients receiving MBI compared to individuals receiving TAU. Prefrontal/cingulate cortical network strength was associated with impulsivity levels. These findings suggest that MBI can have a recognizable role in treatment of substance use disorders and that neural effects of MBI may be captured in terms of frontostriatal structural network change.

Comparison of Attitudes Towards Meditation Healing Exercise between the Elderly Living with Chronic Illness in Bangkok and Surabaya

Introduction: Meditation healing exercise (MHE) using the SKT technique is popular in Bangkok, Thailand, while in Surabaya, Indonesia, it is relatively new and unpopular. The attitude towards MHE depends on various internal and external factors. This study aimed to compare the attitude towards MHE between the elderly who are living with hypertension (HT) and/or diabetes mellitus (DM) in Bangkok and Surabaya.Methods: This was a comparative study involving 96 and 100 elderly individuals with HT and/or DM in the communities of Surabaya and Bangkok respectively. The sample was chosen according to the aforementioned criteria. The sample size was 196. The instrument used was a valid and reliable questionnaire. Descriptive statistics, the Levene test, and an independent sample T test were used for the data analysis.Results: The majority showed a positive attitude towards MHE; the higher Mean and lower SD was found in Bangkok (19.43 and 2.41). Out of the total, 87.5% and 96.0% elderly had good attitude towards MHE in Surabaya and Bangkok respectively. There was a significant attitude difference in relation to the aspect of preferring to practice MHE between Bangkok and Surabaya (p=0.004). Overall, there was no significant attitude difference between Bangkok and Surabaya (p=0.17).Conclusion: The elderly attitude towards MHE was mostly positive and good. The elderly in Bangkok prefer to practice MHE more than in Surabaya. There was no significant attitude difference in the elderly who are living with HT and/or DM between Bangkok and Surabaya. The implementation of MHE using the SKT technique has a high possibility of being accepted personally by the elderly in both sites.

Action steps using ACEs and trauma-informed care: a resilience model

This paper 1) discusses two important contributions that are shaping work with vulnerable and under-resourced populations: Kaiser Permanente's (1998) Adverse Childhood Experiences Study (ACE) which includes the impact of adverse experiences in childhood on adult health and health behaviors and the more recent advent of what has come to be known as Trauma-Informed Care (TIC), programs which incorporate knowledge of the impact of early trauma into policies and programs. 2) Despite many positive benefits that have come from both contributions there are unintended consequences, described in the paper, that have an impact on research and program evaluation as well as social policies and programs. 3) Three key neuroscience concepts are recommended for inclusion in Trauma-Informed Care programs and practices in ways that can enrich program design and guide the development of practical, resilience-oriented interventions that can be evaluated for outcomes. 4) Finally, a resilience-oriented approach to TIC is recommended that moves from trauma information to neuroscience-based action with practical skills to build greater capacity for self-regulation and self-care in both service providers and clients. Examples from criminal justice are used.

Developing brain networks of attention

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Attention is a primary cognitive function critical for perception, language, and memory. We provide an update on brain networks related to attention, their development, training, and pathologies.

RECENT FINDINGS

An executive attention network, also called the cingulo-opercular network, allows voluntary control of behavior in accordance with goals. Individual differences among children in self-regulation have been measured by a higher order factor called effortful control, which is related to the executive network and to the size of the anterior cingulate cortex.

SUMMARY

Brain networks of attention arise in infancy and are related to individual differences, including pathology during childhood. Methods of training attention may improve performance and ameliorate pathology.

Mindfulness in the Maintenance of Cognitive Capacities in Alzheimer's Disease: A Randomized Clinical Trial

BACKGROUND

The Canary Islands longitudinal study on non-pharmacological treatments showed the overall effectiveness of mindfulness in Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, no specific data on the maintenance of cognitive capacities were presented.

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether the practice of mindfulness modifies the course of cognitive impairment in AD.

METHODS

DESIGN

Longitudinal, non-inferiority and equivalence, randomized clinical trial, repeated-measures design, with three experimental groups and one control group.

PARTICIPANTS

Patients with AD who voluntarily attended the Lidia García Foundation (n = 502). Only those who were treated with donepezil and MMSE ≥18 were included (n = 120).

INTERVENTION

Over a two-year period, each group carried out three weekly sessions of stimulation based on mindfulness, cognitive stimulation therapy, and progressive muscle relaxation.

MEASURES

Cognitive assessment CAMDEX-R (MMSE and CAMCOG).

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Repeated-measures ANOVA (p <  0.05) and the effect size Cohen's d were performed.

RESULTS

The mindfulness group showed significant scores compared with the control and muscle relaxation groups (p <  0.05), while mindfulness and cognitive stimulation therapy were equivalent (p≥0.05). Group cognitive stimulation evolved better than the control (p <  0.05) group but not better than the muscle relaxation group (p≥0.05). The effect size compared over two years was large for the mindfulness group (p≥0.80), moderate for the relaxation group (p≥0.50), and low for the cognitive stimulation group (p≥0.20).

CONCLUSION

The practice of mindfulness maintained cognitive function over a period of two years. This longitudinal study suggests that mindfulness can be used as a non-pharmacological treatment to slow cognitive impairment in AD.

Functional neuroimaging of normal aging: Declining brain, adapting brain

Early functional neuroimaging research on normal aging brain has been dominated by the interest in cognitive decline. In this framework the age-related compensatory recruitment of prefrontal cortex, in terms of executive system or reduced lateralization, has been established. Further details on these compensatory mechanisms and the findings reflecting cognitive decline, however, remain the matter of intensive investigations. Studies in another framework where age-related neural alteration is considered adaptation to the environmental change are recently burgeoning and appear largely categorized into three domains. The age-related increase in activation of the sensorimotor network may reflect the alteration of the peripheral sensorimotor systems. The increased susceptibility of the network for the mental-state inference to the socioemotional significance may be explained by the age-related motivational shift due to the altered social perception. The age-related change in activation of the self-referential network may be relevant to the focused positive self-concept of elderly driven by a similar motivational shift. Across the domains, the concept of the self and internal model may provide the theoretical bases of this adaptation framework. These two frameworks complement each other to provide a comprehensive view of the normal aging brain.

The default mode network as a biomarker for monitoring the therapeutic effects of meditation

The default mode network (DMN) is a group of anatomically separate regions in the brain found to have synchronized patterns of activation in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Mentation associated with the DMN includes processes such as mind wandering, autobiographical memory, self-reflective thought, envisioning the future, and considering the perspective of others. Abnormalities in the DMN have been linked to symptom severity in a variety of mental disorders indicating that the DMN could be used as a biomarker for diagnosis. These correlations have also led to the use of DMN modulation as a biomarker for assessing pharmacological treatments. Concurrent research investigating the neural correlates of meditation, have associated DMN modulation with practice. Furthermore, meditative practice is increasingly understood to have a beneficial role in the treatment of mental disorders. Therefore we propose the use of DMN measures as a biomarker for monitoring the therapeutic effects of meditation practices in mental disorders. Recent findings support this perspective, and indicate the utility of DMN monitoring in understanding and developing meditative treatments for these debilitating conditions.

The preparatory set: a novel approach to understanding stress, trauma, and the bodymind therapies

Basic to all motile life is a differential approach/avoid response to perceived features of environment. The stages of response are initial reflexive noticing and orienting to the stimulus, preparation, and execution of response. Preparation involves a coordination of many aspects of the organism: muscle tone, posture, breathing, autonomic functions, motivational/emotional state, attentional orientation, and expectations. The organism organizes itself in relation to the challenge. We propose to call this the "preparatory set" (PS). We suggest that the concept of the PS can offer a more nuanced and flexible perspective on the stress response than do current theories. We also hypothesize that the mechanisms of body-mind therapeutic and educational systems (BTES) can be understood through the PS framework. We suggest that the BTES, including meditative movement, meditation, somatic education, and the body-oriented psychotherapies, are approaches that use interventions on the PS to remedy stress and trauma. We discuss how the PS can be adaptive or maladaptive, how BTES interventions may restore adaptive PS, and how these concepts offer a broader and more flexible view of the phenomena of stress and trauma. We offer supportive evidence for our hypotheses, and suggest directions for future research. We believe that the PS framework will point to ways of improving the management of stress and trauma, and that it will suggest directions of research into the mechanisms of action of BTES.

On the need to better specify the concept of "control" in brain-computer-interfaces/neurofeedback research

Aiming at a better specification of the concept of “control” in brain-computer-interfaces (BCIs) and neurofeedback (NF) research, we propose to distinguish “self-control of brain activity” from the broader concept of “BCI control”, since the first describes a neurocognitive phenomenon and is only one of the many components of “BCI control”. Based on this distinction, we developed a framework based on dual-processes theory that describes the cognitive determinants of self-control of brain activity as the interplay of automatic vs. controlled information processing. Further, we distinguish between cognitive processes that are necessary and sufficient to achieve a given level of self-control of brain activity and those which are not. We discuss that those cognitive processes which are not necessary for the learning process can hamper self-control because they cannot be completely turned-off at any time. This framework aims at a comprehensive description of the cognitive determinants of the acquisition of self-control of brain activity underlying those classes of BCI which require the user to achieve regulation of brain activity as well as NF learning.