The effect of exercise training on adipose tissue insulin sensitivity: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Aerobic exercise decreases the number and transcript expression of inflammatory M1 macrophages and CD8+ T cells in the epicardial adipose tissue of female pigs

Background

Epicardial adipose tissue (EAT) regulates coronary artery function via lipid metabolism and immune cell recruitment. Increased EAT is a risk factor for coronary artery disease (CAD), but aerobic exercise mitigates CAD. The effect of aerobic exercise on immune cells in EAT is unknown. We hypothesized that aerobic exercise creates an anti-inflammatory environment characterized by increased M2 macrophages and up-regulation of anti-inflammatory cytokine transcripts in EAT.

Methods

Female Yucatan pigs (n=7) were allocated to sedentary or exercised groups. To mimic CAD, a coronary artery was chronically occluded or remained non-occluded. EAT samples were processed for bulk and single nuclei transcriptomic sequencing.

Results

Sub-clustering identified immune, endothelial, smooth muscle, adipocytes, adipocyte progenitor cells (APSCs), and neuronal cells, with adipocytes and APSCs being dominant. Non-occluded sedentary EAT had the largest percentage of M1 macrophages and CD8+ T cells. Irrespective of occlusion, sedentary EAT had the largest fraction of cells expressing genes in the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) superfamily. Irrespective of occlusion, exercise upregulated peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) gamma (G) expression and enriched PPAR signaling pathways in adipocytes, macrophages, and T cells. However, PPARG expression was lowest in CD8+ T cells from non-occluded exercised EAT. The greatest number of significant cell-cell communications between adipocytes and immune cells via growth factors and adhesion molecules occurred in occluded sedentary EAT.

Conclusion

Aerobic exercise mitigates the proinflammatory nature of EAT in CAD via modulation of immune cell subpopulations, decreased TNF superfamily and increased PPARG gene expression, and decreased growth factor communication between adipocytes and immune cells.

Physical activity guidelines for adults with type 2 Diabetes: Systematic review

AIMS

The aim of this study was to systematically review recommendations on physical activity for adults with type 2 diabetes (T2D).

METHODS

Online databases were searched for clinical practice guidelines (CPGs), statements, and recommendations. Two authors screened the guidelines based on eligibility criteria. FITT (Frequency, Intensity, Time, Type) for physical activity and disease-specific precautions were extracted independently. The methodological quality of CPGs was assessed using the AGREE II instrument. Recommendations were categorized according to FITT, with disease-specific adaptations also recorded.

RESULTS

Fifteen guidelines were included. Nine underwent AGREE II evaluation, with three rated high quality and the rest moderate to low. The predominant recommendation was to engage in at least 150 min of moderate aerobic exercise per week. Adaptations for T2D focused on glucose levels, diet, foot care, weather conditions, sedentary behaviour, neuropathy, and retinopathy.

CONCLUSION

While guidelines consistently recommended aerobic exercise, there was limited emphasis on strength and flexibility exercises. Significant limitations in methodological and reporting quality were noted, especially in stakeholder involvement and applicability. Future guidelines should use a standardized FITT framework and adhere to standard development methods to enhance usability for healthcare professionals and patients.

Reductive stress: The key pathway in metabolic disorders induced by overnutrition

BACKGROUND

The balance of redox states is crucial for maintaining physiological homeostasis. For decades, the focus has been mainly on the concept of oxidative stress, which is involved in the mechanism of almost all diseases. However, robust evidence has highlighted that reductive stress, the other side of the redox spectrum, plays a pivotal role in the development of various diseases, particularly those related to metabolism and cardiovascular health.

AIM OF REVIEW

In this review, we present an extensive array of evidence for the occurrence of reductive stress and its significant implications mainly in metabolic and cardiovascular diseases.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

Reductive stress is defined as a shift in the cellular redox balance towards a more reduced state, characterized by an excess of endogenous reductants (such as NADH, NADPH, and GSH) over their oxidized counterparts (NAD+, NADP+, and GSSG). While oxidative stress has been the predominant mechanism studied in obesity, metabolic disorders, and cardiovascular diseases, growing evidence underscores the critical role of reductive stress. This review discusses how reductive stress contributes to metabolic and cardiovascular pathologies, emphasizing its effects on key cellular processes. For example, excessive NADH accumulation can disrupt mitochondrial function by impairing the electron transport chain, leading to decreased ATP production and increased production of reactive oxygen species. In the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), an excess of reductive equivalents hampers protein folding, triggering ER stress and activating the unfolded protein response, which can lead to insulin resistance and compromised cellular homeostasis. Furthermore, we explore how excessive antioxidant supplementation can exacerbate reductive stress by further shifting the redox balance, potentially undermining the beneficial effects of exercise, impairing cardiovascular health, and aggravating metabolic disorders, particularly in obese individuals. This growing body of evidence calls for a reevaluation of the role of reductive stress in disease pathogenesis and therapeutic interventions.

The Effects of Exercise Interventions on Ectopic and Subcutaneous Fat in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis, and Meta-Regression

Background/Objectives: The aim of the present study was to determine the effects of exercise training on ectopic and subcutaneous fat in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Methods: Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus were searched for original articles published through November 2023 that included exercise versus control interventions on body mass (BM), liver fat percentage, visceral fat area (VFA), subcutaneous fat area (SFA), and intramuscular fat volume or mass (IMF) in patients with T2DM. Weighted mean differences (WMDs) for liver fat and BM, standardized mean differences (SMDs) for VFA, SFA, and IMF, and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) were determined using random-effects models. Results: Thirty-six studies comprising 2110 patients with T2DM were included in the present meta-analysis. Exercise training effectively reduced BM [WMD = -2.502 kg, p = 0.001], liver fat% [WMD = -1.559%, p = 0.030], VFA [SMD = -0.510, p = 0.001], and SFA [SMD = -0.413, p = 0.001] in comparison to the control. The IMF [SMD = 0.222, p = 0.118] remained unchanged compared to the controls. Subgroup analyses showed that the type of exercise, duration, and body mass index (BMI) of participants were sources of heterogeneity. Conclusions: The current meta-analysis provides strong evidence that exercise training, particularly aerobic and combined (aerobic and resistance) exercise programs, is effective for reducing BM, VFA, and SFA in patients with T2DM. However, aerobic exercise was more effective for reducing liver fat than combined exercise. The beneficial effects of exercise on VFA and SFA reduction, but not liver fat, are associated with weight loss. These findings highlight the importance of including consistent exercise as a key management component for T2DM and associated ectopic fat deposition, with potential long-term benefits for metabolic health.

The effects of exercise on microRNA expression profiling in adipose tissue macrophages of mice

Background

Exercise is recognized for its broad health benefits, influencing various physiological processes, including the behavior of adipose tissue macrophages (ATMs). While existing studies mainly associate ATM activity with obesity and metabolic syndrome, our study explores the impact of aerobic exercise on ATM microRNA expression profiling in a non-obese context, highlighting its general health-promoting mechanisms.

Methods

Sixty male C57BL/6 mice were randomly assigned to either a sedentary (S) or an exercise (E) group. The S group remained inactive, while the E group underwent a one-week treadmill adaptation, followed by an 8-week aerobic treadmill exercise protocol (60 min/day, 5 days/week, at 65%-75% VO2max). Post-training, glucose tolerance and the serum lipid levels were measured in mice subjected to both exercise and non-exercise conditions. ATMs harvested from visceral adipose tissues were analyzed and sorted using flow cytometer. To further investigate the effects of exercise in ATMs at the molecular level, miRNA microarray analysis was performed, followed by bioinformatic analysis.

Results

The 8-week regimen of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise ameliorated glucolipid metabolism and fostered a dynamic shift toward an M2 macrophage phenotype in the adipose tissue, independent of obesity. A total of 62 differentially expressed miRNAs were identified in ATMs of mice post-exercise. Notably, six miRNAs (miR-212-5p, miR-511-5p, miR-7b-5p, miR-142-3p, miR-1894-3p, and miR-31-5p) as well as their target gene were consistently altered and associated with macrophage polarization and metabolic regulation.

Conclusion

Our findings broaden the understanding of how exercise regulates ATM functions through significant changes in microRNA profiles, emphasizing its potential to enhance health and prevent chronic conditions. This study supports the application of aerobic exercise for its preventive effects on chronic diseases and underscores the importance of microRNA profiling in understanding the immune-modulatory impacts of exercise.

Sex differences in adipose insulin resistance are linked to obesity, lipolysis and insulin receptor substrate 1

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE

Insulin resistance is more prominent in men than women. If this involves adipose tissue is unknown and was presently examined.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

AdipoIR (in vivo adipose insulin resistance index) was measured in 2344 women and 787 men. In 259 of the women and 54 of the men, insulin induced inhibition of lipolysis (acylglycerol breakdown) and stimulation of lipogenesis (glucose conversion to acylglycerols) were determined in subcutaneous adipocytes; in addition, basal (spontaneous) lipolysis was also determined in the fat cells. In 234 women and 115 men, RNAseq expression of canonical insulin signal genes were measured in subcutaneous adipose tissue. Messenger RNA transcripts of the most discriminant genes were quantified in 175 women and 109 men.

RESULTS

Men had higher AdipoIR values than women but only when obesity (body mass index 30 kg/m2 or more) was present (p < 0.0001). The latter sex dimorphism was found among physically active and sedentary people, in those with and without cardiometabolic disease and in people using nicotine or not (p = 0.0003 or less). In obesity, adipocyte insulin sensitivity (half maximum effective hormone concentration) and maximal antilipolytic effect were tenfold and 10% lower, respectively, in men than women (p = 0.005 or less). Basal rate of lipolysis was two times higher in men than women (p > 0.0001). Sensitivity and maximum effect of insulin on lipogenesis were similar in both sexes (p = 0.26 and p = 0.18, respectively). When corrected for multiple comparison only RNAseq expression of insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS1) was lower in men than women (p < 0.0001). The mRNA transcript for IRS1 was 60% higher in women than men (p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

In obesity, adipose tissue insulin resistance is more pronounced in men than in women. The mechanism involves less efficient insulin-mediated inhibition of adipocyte lipolysis, increased basal rate of lipolysis and decreased adipose expression of a key element of insulin signaling, IRS1.

Short Sleep Duration Disrupts Glucose Metabolism: Can Exercise Turn Back the Clock?

Short sleep duration is prevalent in modern society and may be contributing to type 2 diabetes prevalence. This review will explore the effects of sleep restriction on glycemic control, the mechanisms causing insulin resistance, and whether exercise can offset changes in glycemic control. Chronic sleep restriction may also contribute to a decrease in physical activity leading to further health complications.

Exercise induces tissue-specific adaptations to enhance cardiometabolic health

The risk associated with multiple cancers, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and all-cause mortality is decreased in individuals who meet the current recommendations for physical activity. Therefore, regular exercise remains a cornerstone in the prevention and treatment of non-communicable diseases. An acute bout of exercise results in the coordinated interaction between multiple tissues to meet the increased energy demand of exercise. Over time, the associated metabolic stress of each individual exercise bout provides the basis for long-term adaptations across tissues, including the cardiovascular system, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, liver, pancreas, gut, and brain. Therefore, regular exercise is associated with a plethora of benefits throughout the whole body, including improved cardiorespiratory fitness, physical function, and glycemic control. Overall, we summarize the exercise-induced adaptations that occur within multiple tissues and how they converge to ultimately improve cardiometabolic health.

Clusterin is closely associated with adipose tissue insulin resistance

AIMS

Clusterin (encoded by CLU) is a novel adipokine. Serum clusterin levels were elevated in populations with obesity and diabetes. Adipose tissue insulin resistance (Adipo-IR) is proposed as an early metabolic defect that precedes systemic insulin resistance. Herein, we aimed to investigate the relationship between serum clusterin levels and Adipo-IR. CLU expression in human abdominal adipose tissues and clusterin secretion in human adipocytes was also explored.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 201 participants (aged 18-62 years, 139 of whom were obese) were recruited. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to measure serum clusterin levels. Adipo-IR was calculated from the product of fasting free fatty acids and fasting insulin levels. Transcriptome sequencing of abdominal visceral adipose tissue (VAT) and subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) was performed. Human adipocytes were used to detect the secretion of clusterin.

RESULTS

Serum clusterin levels were independently associated with Adipo-IR after adjusting for several confounding factors (standardised β = 0.165, p = 0.021). CLU expression in VAT and SAT was associated with obesity-related metabolic risk factors. Higher CLU expression in VAT was accompanied by an increase in collagen accumulation. Clusterin secretion in differentiated human adipocytes was stimulated by insulin and inhibited by rosiglitazone.

CONCLUSIONS

Clusterin is strongly associated with Adipo-IR. Serum clusterin may function as an effective indicator of adipose tissue insulin resistance.

Effect of exercise training on insulin-stimulated glucose disposal: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

The effect of exercise training on whole-body insulin sensitivity has not been systematically summarized. We aimed to summarize the data from randomized controlled trials evaluating the effect of exercise training on insulin action, in adults.

SUBJECTS

MEDLINE, EMBASE, and CENTRAL databases were searched until January 2021. Randomized controlled trials lasting ≥4 weeks, including adults, and evaluating the effect of exercise on insulin-stimulated glucose disposal measured using the hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp, were included.

METHODS

Three reviewers extracted summary data from published trials. The primary outcome was insulin-stimulated glucose disposal. Standardized weighted mean differences (SMD) in glucose disposal between intervention and control were compared. The PEDro scale was used to assess risk of bias.

RESULTS

We included 25 trials (36 interventions, N = 851). Exercise increased insulin-stimulated glucose disposal relative to control, SMD = 0.52 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.39, 0.65; p < 0.001; I2 = 47%) without significantly suppressing hepatic glucose production. In trials without isotopic tracers, exercise increased glucose disposal (SMD = 0.63; 95% CI: 0.48, 0.77; p < 0.001, I2 = 55%). In trials with isotopic tracers, exercise increased glucose disposal only when tracers were added to the exogenous glucose used for clamping (SMD = 0.34; 95% CI: 0.03, 0.66, p = 0.034. I2 = 0%). In a meta-regression model including aerobic exercise, weight change, and tracer technique, only percent weight change explained between trial heterogeneity (β = 0.069; 95% CI: 0.005, 0.013). The PEDro rating indicated relatively low risk of bias (5.8 ± 0.22).

CONCLUSIONS

Exercise training for at least four weeks significantly increases insulin-stimulated glucose disposal. Weight loss maximizes the effect and may be needed to improve hepatic insulin sensitivity. Differences in tracer methodology contribute to divergent outcomes and should be considered when assessing conclusions from research examining the effect of exercise on insulin action.

REGISTRATION

PROSPERO (CRD42019124381).

Relationship Between a Sedentary Lifestyle and Adipose Insulin Resistance

Sedentary people have insulin resistance in their skeletal muscle, but whether this also occurs in fat cells was unknown. Insulin inhibition of hydrolysis of triglycerides (antilipolysis) and stimulation of triglyceride formation (lipogenesis) were investigated in subcutaneous fat cells from 204 sedentary and 336 physically active subjects. Insulin responsiveness (maximum hormone effect) and sensitivity (half-maximal effective concentration) were determined. In 69 women, hyperinsulinemia-induced circulating fatty acid levels were measured. In 128 women, adipose gene expression was analyzed. Responsiveness of insulin for antilipolysis (60% inhibition) and lipogenesis (twofold stimulation) were similar between sedentary and active subjects. Sensitivity for both measures decreased ˜10-fold in sedentary subjects (P < 0.01). However, upon multiple regression analysis, only the association between antilipolysis sensitivity and physical activity remained significant when adjusting for BMI, age, sex, waist-to-hip ratio, fat-cell size, and cardiometabolic disorders. Fatty acid levels decreased following hyperinsulinemia but remained higher in sedentary compared with active women (P = 0.01). mRNA expression of insulin receptor and its substrates 1 and 2 was decreased in sedentary subjects. In conclusion, while the maximum effect is preserved, sensitivity to insulin's antilipolytic effect in subcutaneous fat cells is selectively lower in sedentary subjects.

Adipocyte Metabolism and Health after the Menopause: The Role of Exercise

Postmenopausal women represent an important target population in need of preventative cardiometabolic approaches. The loss of estrogen following the menopause eliminates protections against metabolic dysfunction, largely due to its role in the health and function of adipose tissue. In addition, some studies associate the menopause with reduced physical activity, which could potentially exacerbate the deleterious cardiometabolic risk profile accompanying the menopause. Meanwhile, exercise has adipocyte-specific effects that may alleviate the adverse impact of estrogen loss through the menopausal transition period and beyond. Exercise thus remains the best therapeutic agent available to mitigate menopause-associated metabolic dysfunction and represents a vital behavioral strategy to prevent and alleviate health decline in this population.

The effect of acute and chronic exercise on hepatic lipid composition

Exercise is recommended for those with, or at risk of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), owing to beneficial effects on hepatic steatosis and cardiometabolic risk. Whilst exercise training reduces total intrahepatic lipid in people with NAFLD, accumulating evidence indicates that exercise may also modulate hepatic lipid composition. This metabolic influence is important as the profile of saturated (SFA), monounsaturated (MUFA), and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) dramatically affect the metabolic consequences of hepatic lipid accumulation; with SFA being especially lipotoxic. Relatedly, obesity and NAFLD are associated with hepatic PUFA depletion and elevated SFA. This review summarizes the acute (single bout) and chronic (exercise training) effects of exercise on hepatic lipid composition in rodents (acute studies: n = 3, chronic studies: n = 13) and humans (acute studies: n = 1, chronic studies: n = 3). An increased proportion of hepatic PUFA after acute and chronic exercise is the most consistent finding of this review. Mechanistically, this may relate to an enhanced uptake of adipose-derived PUFA (reflecting habitual diet), particularly in rodents. A relative decrease in the proportion of hepatic MUFA after chronic exercise is also documented repeatedly, particularly in rodent models with elevated hepatic MUFA. This outcome is related to decreased hepatic stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 activity in some studies. Findings regarding hepatic SFA are less consistent and limited by the absence of metabolic challenge in rodent models. These findings require confirmation in well-controlled interventions in people with NAFLD. These studies will be facilitated by recently validated magnetic resonance spectroscopy techniques, able to precisely quantify hepatic lipid composition in vivo.