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Cerciello F, Esposito C, La Penna I, Sica LS, Frolli A. Exploring the relationships between dominance behavioral system, mentalization, theory of mind and assertiveness: analysis in a non-clinical sample. Front Psychol 2024; 15:1407933. [PMID: 39077207 PMCID: PMC11284945 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1407933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2024] [Accepted: 06/28/2024] [Indexed: 07/31/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction The dominance behavioral system, a fundamental aspect of human behavior, orchestrates the drive for dominance, regulates dominant-subordinate dynamics, and shapes responses to perceived power dynamics. While the existing literature extensively delves into the components of this system, scant attention is paid to its interplay with mentalization, theory of mind, and assertiveness. Moreover, gender disparities in dominance behaviors are largely studied in terms of biological variables (levels of testosterone) and clinical populations. This study aims to understand the relationships between activation strategies of the dominance behavioral system, mentalization processes, theory of mind abilities, and levels of social discomfort in assertive communication. Moreover, to identify gender differences in the dominance behavioral system in a non-clinical sample. Methods Our sample was composed of 67 students from a non-clinical population. They claimed the absence of any psychological, neurological, or developmental disorders. Results A regression analysis was performed, and we found that levels of mentalization predict levels of hyperactivation of dominance behavioral system, but no significant results for the deactivation levels of the system were found. Moreover, no gender differences were found in levels of activations of the dominance behavioral system. Conclusion These findings underscore the pivotal role of mentalization abilities in interpersonal dynamics, emphasizing the need for individuals to navigate social interactions adeptly. Furthermore, our research unveils implications for individual well-being and psychopathology, urging further investigation into how these dimensions intersect with various psychological disorders. By discerning the intricate mechanisms at play, we can develop targeted therapeutic interventions tailored to specific behavioral patterns, ultimately enhancing psychological resilience and fostering healthier social relationships in a non-clinical population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Cerciello
- Disability Research Centre, Department of International Humanities and Social Sciences, Rome University of International Studies, Rome, Italy
| | - Clara Esposito
- Disability Research Centre, Department of International Humanities and Social Sciences, Rome University of International Studies, Rome, Italy
| | - Ilaria La Penna
- Child Neuropsychiatry Outpatient Clinic, Fondazione Italiana Neuroscienze e Disordini dello Sviluppo - FINDS, Caserta, Italy
| | - Luigia Simona Sica
- Department of Humanities, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Alessandro Frolli
- Disability Research Centre, Department of International Humanities and Social Sciences, Rome University of International Studies, Rome, Italy
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Mullen JN, Liu P, McDonnell CG, Stanton K, Kotelnikova Y, Johnson SL, Hayden EP. Assessing the dominance behavioral system in early childhood using observational methods. CURRENT ISSUES IN PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY 2023; 11:216-227. [PMID: 38014381 PMCID: PMC10654335 DOI: 10.5114/cipp/156767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Revised: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The dominance behavioral system (DBS) is a biologically based system that underpins individual differences in motivation for dominance and power. However, little is known about the DBS in childhood. In order to make strong claims about the DBS's trait-like properties and predictive validity, a clearer understanding of its early development is required. PARTICIPANTS AND PROCEDURE In a pilot study aimed at developing a behavioral coding system for dominance, a key facet of the DBS, we collected and coded observational data from 58 children, assessed at ages 3 and 5-6. These data were examined in conjunction with measures of child temperament via observational measures, and symptoms of psychopathology. RESULTS Dominance was moderately stable in early childhood to a degree comparable to other early child temperament traits. Consistent with the study hypotheses, boys were more dominant than girls, and dominance was negatively associated with children's behavioral inhibition, effortful control, and internalizing symptoms. CONCLUSIONS These results provide initial support for the validity and developmental sensitivity of an objective coding system for assessing facets of the DBS in early childhood. Ultimately, the use of this coding system will facilitate future studies of how early DBS predicts psychological adjustment later in life.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Pan Liu
- Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
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Lin D, Bi J, Zhang X, Zhu F, Wang Y. Successful emotion regulation via cognitive reappraisal in authentic pride: Behavioral and event-related potential evidence. Front Hum Neurosci 2022; 16:983674. [PMID: 36310848 PMCID: PMC9606822 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2022.983674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study explored whether authentic pride (AP) and hubristic pride (HP) were differently associated with cognitive reappraisal strategy. In study 1, undergraduates (n = 235) completed a battery of self-report questionnaires, including the Authentic and Hubristic Pride-Proneness Scale (AHPPS), Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ), and emotion regulation questionnaire (ERP-R). The results showed that AP significantly predicted successful down-regulation of negative emotions via a spontaneous cognitive reappraisal strategy. However, hubristic pride (HP) was negatively associated with spontaneous cognitive reappraisal. In study 2, participants with trait AP (n = 31) and trait HP (n = 29) undergoing continuous electroencephalogram (EEG) recording were required to reinterpret emotional pictures to down-regulate/up-regulate their negative/positive emotional reactions. The results showed that individuals with AP reported lower levels of emotional arousal and lower amplitudes of late positive potentials (LPPs) than did individuals with HP in response to negative pictures during the down-regulation of negative emotions, but not during passive viewing or up-regulation of positive emotions. Across two studies, these findings showed that individuals with AP could utilize the cognitive reappraisal strategy (spontaneously in daily life and under experimental instructions) to down-regulate negative emotions more successfully relative to individuals with HP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daichun Lin
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Psychological Crisis Intervention, School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jianru Bi
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Psychological Crisis Intervention, School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaoxuan Zhang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Psychological Crisis Intervention, School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Changning Mental Health Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Feng Zhu
- Shanghai Changning Mental Health Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Yanmei Wang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Psychological Crisis Intervention, School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Changning Mental Health Center, Shanghai, China
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Social dominance and multiple dimensions of psychopathology: An experimental test of reactivity to leadership and subordinate roles. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0250099. [PMID: 33909641 PMCID: PMC8081185 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0250099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Theory and research suggest that social dominance is important for multiple forms of psychopathology, and yet few studies have considered multiple dimensions of psychopathology simultaneously, and relatively few have used well-validated behavioral indices. Method Among 81 undergraduates, we used a well-validated experimental approach of assigning participants to a leadership or subordinate position, and we examined how self-rated severity of depression, social anxiety, manic tendencies, and psychopathy relate to psychophysiological and affective reactivity to this role. Results Consistent with hypotheses, manic symptoms related to more discomfort in the subordinate role compared to the leadership role, as evidenced by more decline in positive affect, more discomfort, and a larger RSA decline, while depression symptoms related to a more positive response to the subordinate role than the leadership role, including more positive affect and more comfort in the assigned role. Social anxiety was related to discomfort regardless of the assigned role, and those with higher psychopathy symptoms did not show differential response to assigned roles. Limitations Findings are limited by the mild symptom levels and absence of hormonal data. Conclusions Findings provide novel transdiagnostic evidence for the importance of social dominance to differentiate diverse forms of psychopathology.
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Tharp JA, Johnson SL, Dev A. Transdiagnostic Approach to the Dominance Behavioral System. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2021; 176. [PMID: 33746322 DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2021.110778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jordan A Tharp
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley
| | - Sheri L Johnson
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley
| | - Amelia Dev
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley
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Zisser MR, Johnson SL, Freeman MA, Staudenmaier PJ. The relationship between entrepreneurial intent, gender and personality. GENDER IN MANAGEMENT 2019; 34:665-684. [PMID: 31803251 PMCID: PMC6892344 DOI: 10.1108/gm-08-2018-0105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE We examine gender differences in personality traits of people with and without entrepreneurial intent to assess whether women who intend to become entrepreneurs exhibit particular tendencies that can be fostered. DESIGN/METHODOLOGY/APPROACH Participants completed an online battery of well-established questionnaires to cover a range of personality traits relevant to entrepreneurship and gender. Participants also answered items concerning intent to become an entrepreneur. A factor analysis of personality traits produced four factors (Esteem and Power, Ambition, Risk Propensity, and Communal Tendency, the latter reflecting Openness and Cooperation, without Hubris). We constructed four parallel regression models to examine how gender, entrepreneurial intent, and the interaction of gender with intent related to these four personality factor scores. FINDINGS Participants who endorsed a desire to become an entrepreneur reported higher Ambition. Women with entrepreneurial intentions endorsed higher levels of Communal Tendency than men with entrepreneurial intent. Those without entrepreneurial intent did not show gender differences in Communal Tendency. IMPLICATIONS Current findings suggest that men and women who intend to become entrepreneurs share many traits, but women with entrepreneurial intent show unique elevations in communal tendencies. Thus, a worthwhile locus for intervention into the gender disparity in self-employment may be providing space for and acknowledgement of prosocial motivation and goals as one successful route to entrepreneurship. ORIGINALITY/VALUE Given the underutilized economic potential of women entrepreneurs, there is a fundamental need for a rich array of research on factors that limit and promote women's entry into entrepreneurship. Current findings indicate that personality may be one piece of this puzzle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mackenzie R Zisser
- Department of Psychology; University of California, Berkeley; Berkeley; California; USA
| | - Sheri L Johnson
- Department of Psychology; University of California, Berkeley; Berkeley; California; USA
| | - Michael A Freeman
- Department of Psychiatry; University of California, San Francisco; San Francisco; California; USA
| | - Paige J Staudenmaier
- Frank H. Netter School of Medicine; Quinnipiac University; Hamden; Connecticut; USA
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Fusar‐Poli P, Solmi M, Brondino N, Davies C, Chae C, Politi P, Borgwardt S, Lawrie SM, Parnas J, McGuire P. Transdiagnostic psychiatry: a systematic review. World Psychiatry 2019; 18:192-207. [PMID: 31059629 PMCID: PMC6502428 DOI: 10.1002/wps.20631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The usefulness of current psychiatric classification, which is based on ICD/DSM categorical diagnoses, remains questionable. A promising alternative has been put forward as the "transdiagnostic" approach. This is expected to cut across existing categorical diagnoses and go beyond them, to improve the way we classify and treat mental disorders. This systematic review explores whether self-defining transdiagnostic research meets such high expectations. A multi-step Web of Science literature search was performed according to an a priori protocol, to identify all studies that used the word "transdiagnostic" in their title, up to May 5, 2018. Empirical variables which indexed core characteristics were extracted, complemented by a bibliometric and conceptual analysis. A total of 111 studies were included. Most studies were investigating interventions, followed by cognition and psychological processes, and neuroscientific topics. Their samples ranged from 15 to 91,199 (median 148) participants, with a mean age from 10 to more than 60 (median 33) years. There were several methodological inconsistencies relating to the definition of the gold standard (DSM/ICD diagnoses), of the outcome measures and of the transdiagnostic approach. The quality of the studies was generally low and only a few findings were externally replicated. The majority of studies tested transdiagnostic features cutting across different diagnoses, and only a few tested new classification systems beyond the existing diagnoses. About one fifth of the studies were not transdiagnostic at all, because they investigated symptoms and not disorders, a single disorder, or because there was no diagnostic information. The bibliometric analysis revealed that transdiagnostic research largely restricted its focus to anxiety and depressive disorders. The conceptual analysis showed that transdiagnostic research is grounded more on rediscoveries than on true innovations, and that it is affected by some conceptual biases. To date, transdiagnostic approaches have not delivered a credible paradigm shift that can impact classification and clinical care. Practical "TRANSD"iagnostic recommendations are proposed here to guide future research in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Fusar‐Poli
- Early Psychosis: Interventions and Clinical‐detection (EPIC) Lab, Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & NeuroscienceKing's College LondonLondonUK,OASIS Service, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation TrustLondonUK,Department of Brain and Behavioral SciencesUniversity of PaviaPaviaItaly
| | - Marco Solmi
- Early Psychosis: Interventions and Clinical‐detection (EPIC) Lab, Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & NeuroscienceKing's College LondonLondonUK,Neuroscience Department, Psychiatry UnitUniversity of PaduaPaduaItaly
| | - Natascia Brondino
- Department of Brain and Behavioral SciencesUniversity of PaviaPaviaItaly
| | - Cathy Davies
- Early Psychosis: Interventions and Clinical‐detection (EPIC) Lab, Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & NeuroscienceKing's College LondonLondonUK
| | - Chungil Chae
- Applied Cognitive Science Lab, Department of Information Science and TechnologyPennsylvania State University, University ParkPAUSA
| | - Pierluigi Politi
- Department of Brain and Behavioral SciencesUniversity of PaviaPaviaItaly
| | | | | | - Josef Parnas
- Center for Subjectivity ResearchUniversity of CopenhagenCopenhagenDenmark
| | - Philip McGuire
- OASIS Service, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation TrustLondonUK,Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & NeuroscienceKing's College LondonLondonUK,National Institute for Health Research Maudsley Biomedical Research CentreSouth London and Maudsley NHS Foundation TrustLondonUK
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Bartholomew ME, Smith B, Johnson SL. Explaining interpersonal difficulty via implicit and explicit personality correlates of mania risk. J Affect Disord 2019; 246:248-251. [PMID: 30590287 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2018.12.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2018] [Revised: 11/09/2018] [Accepted: 12/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mania is associated with social conflict, reduced social support, and reduced social interaction quality (Breyer et al., 2003; Coryell et al., 1998; Morriss et al., 2007). Chronic stress in interpersonal relationships is related to the worsening of mood symptoms (Kim et al., 2007), suggesting the importance of characterizing the mechanism of interpersonal relationship disruption in bipolar disorder. The current study was designed to investigate exaggerated dominance tendencies present in at-risk individuals (Gardner, 1982; Wilson and Price, 2006), which may represent one such mechanism. METHODS Sixty-nine University undergraduate participants (50.7% female, 22 categorized as high mania risk) completed an implicit measure of power motivation and series of self-report questionnaires designed to assess dominance-relevant traits. RESULTS Risk for mania was related to a tendency to experience contempt, and an implicit index of dominance tendencies, and also to trait-like tendencies to experience pride, perceptions of being more powerful and influential across relationships,. LIMITATIONS Use of an undergraduate population and a dimensional measure of mania risk (rather than diagnosed individuals) are limitations. CONCLUSIONS Mania risk is tied not only to the pursuit of dominance, but also to beliefs and actions consistent with a sense of power. Current findings provide evidence that the dominance system profile observed in those at risk for mania could be one source of interpersonal problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgan E Bartholomew
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Franz Hall, 502 Portola Plz, Los Angeles, CA, United States.
| | - Bruce Smith
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Sheri L Johnson
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States
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Van Doren N, Tharp JA, Johnson SL, Staudenmaier PJ, Anderson C, Freeman MA. Perseverance of effort is related to lower depressive symptoms via authentic pride and perceived power. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2018.07.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Yang Y, Fletcher K, Whitehead R, Murray G. Toward New Therapeutic Mechanisms in Bipolar Disorder: Analog Investigation of Self-Compassion and Nonattachment to Self. Front Psychol 2018; 9:1848. [PMID: 30319518 PMCID: PMC6171443 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2018] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
There is growing interest in psychological processes that might be targeted in treatments for bipolar disorder (BD). One such process is a vulnerability at the level of self-concept, characterized by presence of, and fluctuations between positive and negative self-concept. The aim of the present study was to advance this literature by investigating the role of two emerging meta-cognitive processes – self-compassion and nonattachment to self – which have potential to therapeutically modulate this unstable self-concept in BD. Using an analog design, it was hypothesized that both variables would mediate the relationship between bipolar tendencies and psychological distress in a general population sample. Participants (N = 372 Australian university students) completed self-report measures of manic and depressive tendencies, self-compassion, nonattachment to self and psychological distress. To investigate the specificity of the two hypothesized mediators, a better-researched psychological variable – rumination – was also included in mediation analyses. Bivariate analyses found tendencies toward mania and depression to be associated with diminished self-compassion and nonattachment to self, while both psychological processes were negatively associated with psychological distress. Mediation analyses showed, as expected, self-compassion and nonattachment to self mediated the relationship between bipolar tendencies and psychological distress after controlling for the effects of rumination. The present findings add incrementally to this literature by demonstrating that two meta-cognitive processes – self-compassion and nonattachment to self – act as mediators, and may be modifiable mechanisms linking bipolar vulnerability to negative mood outcomes. Future research should tackle longstanding conceptual issues in this domain, including the relationship between contents of self-concept (an established focus of BD research) and the person’s meta-cognitive approach to their self-concept (the focus here).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Yang
- Centre for Mental Health, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, VIC, Australia
| | - Kathryn Fletcher
- Centre for Mental Health, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, VIC, Australia
| | - Richard Whitehead
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, VIC, Australia
| | - Greg Murray
- Centre for Mental Health, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, VIC, Australia
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Campellone TR, Peckham AD, Johnson SL. Parsing positivity in the bipolar spectrum: The effect of context on social decision-making. J Affect Disord 2018; 235:316-322. [PMID: 29665514 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2018.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2017] [Revised: 11/17/2017] [Accepted: 02/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION People with bipolar disorder often show more approach-related behavior and positive appraisals of others during social interactions. This may be due to an increased sensitivity to positive contexts or to tendencies toward positive affectivity. In this study, we investigated the influence of reward versus prosocial positive contexts on social decision-making in people at high (n = 21) and low (n = 111) risk for bipolar disorder. METHODS Participants completed a computerized task consisting of two blocks. In the No Context block, participants were presented with a face and asked to make decisions related to approach, appraisal, and trust behavior toward that person. In the Context block, designed to assess the influence of contextual information on decision-making, each face was preceded by a written statement describing a positive or neutral context. RESULTS Compared to the low risk group, the high-risk group made significantly higher approach and appraisal ratings, regardless of the context condition. Effects were sustained controlling for positive affect. We did not find any effect of bipolar risk on trust ratings. LIMITATIONS The study was conducted in an analogue sample. DISCUSSION Taken together, these results suggest risk for bipolar disorder is associated with greater positive social approach and appraisal tendencies, and that these effects are not secondary to social context or positive affect. Implications for understanding social decision-making in the bipolar spectrum are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy R Campellone
- San Francisco VA Medical Center, 4150 Clement Street, San Francisco, CA 94121, USA.
| | | | - Sheri L Johnson
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, USA
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Stanton K, McArtor DB, Watson D. Parsing the Hypomanic Personality: Explicating the Nature of Specific Dimensions Defining Mania Risk. Assessment 2017; 26:492-507. [PMID: 28800706 DOI: 10.1177/1073191117725170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Considerable research has used the Hypomanic Personality Scale (HPS) to assess traits conferring risk for hypomanic and manic episodes. Although the HPS has been shown to be defined by several distinct sets of content, most research has continued to rely exclusively on HPS total scores, due to (a) little research having examined its structure and (b) the discrepant structural results obtained in the few available studies. Therefore, we examined the structure and relations of the HPS in a large sample of community adults ( N = 737) receiving psychiatric treatment. Our structural results indicated a five-factor structure of Activation, Charisma, Intellectual Confidence, Lability, and Modesty. Subscales modeling these emergent factors showed divergent patterns of relations with personality and other forms of psychopathology. These findings underscore the importance of examining HPS subscale relations in addition to HPS total scores in future research.
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Wilkinson RG, Pickett KE. The enemy between us: The psychological and social costs of inequality. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.2275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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