Water-Holding and Transport Properties of Skin Stratum Corneum of Infants and Toddlers Are Different from Those of Adults: Studies in Three Geographical Regions and Four Ethnic Groups

Characterization of Skin Interfollicular Stem Cells and Early Transit Amplifying Cells during the Transition from Infants to Young Children

In the interfollicular epidermis, keratinocyte stem cells (KSC) generate a short-lived population of transit amplifying (TA) cells that undergo terminal differentiation after several cell divisions. Recently, we isolated and characterized a highly proliferative keratinocyte cell population, named "early" TA (ETA) cell, representing the first KSC progenitor with exclusive features. This work aims to evaluate epidermis, with a focus on KSC and ETA cells, during transition from infancy to childhood. Reconstructed human epidermis (RHE) generated from infant keratinocytes is more damaged by UV irradiation, as compared to RHE from young children. Moreover, the expression of several differentiation and barrier genes increases with age, while the expression of genes related to stemness is reduced from infancy to childhood. The proliferation rate of KSC and ETA cells is higher in cells derived from infants' skin samples than of those derived from young children, as well as the capacity of forming colonies is more pronounced in KSC derived from infants than from young children's skin samples. Finally, infants-KSC show the greatest regenerative capacity in skin equivalents, while young children ETA cells express higher levels of differentiation markers, as compared to infants-ETA. KSC and ETA cells undergo substantial changes during transition from infancy to childhood. The study presents a novel insight into pediatric skin, and sheds light on the correlation between age and structural maturation of the skin.

Skin maturation from birth to 10 years of age: Structure, function, composition and microbiome

Infant and adult skin physiology differ in many ways; however, limited data exist for older children. To further investigate the maturation processes of healthy skin during childhood. Skin parameters were recorded in 80 participants of four age groups: babies (0-2 years), young children (3-6 years), older children (7-<10 years) and adults (25-40 years). Overall, skin barrier function continues to mature, reaching adult levels of transepidermal water loss (TEWL), lipid compactness, stratum corneum (SC) thickness and corneocyte size by the age of about 6 years. Higher levels of lactic acid and lower levels of total amino acids in the SC of babies and young children further indicate higher cell turnover rates. In all age groups, TEWL and skin surface hydration values remain higher on the face compared with the arm. Skin becomes darker and contains higher levels of melanin with increasing age. The composition of skin microbiome of the dorsal forearm in all children groups is distinct from that in adults, with Firmicutes predominating in the former and Proteobacteria in the latter. Skin physiology, along with the skin microbiome, continues to mature during early childhood in a site-specific manner.

Trend of changes in epidermal biophysical properties in the Chinese aged 1 month to 17-year old

BACKGROUND

Although it is known that epidermal biophysical properties vary with age and gender, the changes in epidermal biophysical properties over the time from baby to adolescence have not been elucidated yet. In the present study, we assessed the trend of changes in transepidermal water loss rates (TEWL), stratum corneum hydration, and skin surface pH in Chinese children.

PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS

A total of 780 boys and 610 girls, aged 1 month to 17-year old, were enrolled in this study. TEWL and stratum corneum hydration on the forearm and the shin were measured with GPSkin Barrier, whereas skin surface pH was measured with portable skin pH meter.

RESULTS

Overall, TEWL and stratum corneum hydration levels decreased, whereas skin surface pH increased in children from 1-month old to 17-year old. Significant decline in TEWL was observed on both the forearm and the shin of girls, and the shin of boys aged 13-17-year old. Similarly, marked decline in stratum corneum hydration levels started at ages of 6-12-year old. In contrast, decline in skin surface pH was observed in both girls and boys aged one to 12-month old except on the forearm of boys. Afterward, skin surface pH remained either stable or slight increase except on the shin of boys aged >12 months to 3-year old.

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate that both TEWL and stratum corneum hydration levels decrease, whereas skin surface pH increases in children aged 1 month to 17-year old. The changes in these biophysical properties vary with age, gender, and body site.

Pressure Injury Risk Assessment in Pediatric Intensive Care: A Prospective Validation Study of the Glamorgan Scale and Predictive Comparison with the Braden Q Scale

OBJECTIVE

To validate the Glamorgan Scale and compare its predictive ability in assessing pressure injury risk among patients in a pediatric ICU (PICU) with that of the Braden Q Scale.

METHODS

A prospective cohort study was performed to validate the Glamorgan Scale and compare its predictive ability with the Braden Q Scale in a PICU population. A total of 83 patients admitted in the PICU between February and July 2020 met the inclusion criteria and were included in the study, leading to 639 measurements. The authors tested the psychometric properties of the Glamorgan Scale to validate whether the characteristics of the original version were preserved. To this end, reliability (internal consistency) and concurrent and predictive validity (sensitivity and specificity) were assessed. For the predictive comparison, the authors performed the same tests with the Braden Q Scale.

RESULTS

The predictive validity, as assessed by the receiver operator characteristic curve and calculation of the area under the curve, showed satisfactory performance for the Glamorgan Scale (0.77; CI, 0.72-0.82); the Braden Q Scale values were similar (0.78; CI 0.73-0.84). The Spearman correlation coefficient showed a strong correlation between the total scores of the Glamorgan Scale (ρ = -0.76; P < .01), corroborating its validation.

CONCLUSIONS

The Glamorgan Scale was validated and showed good accuracy and consistency for pressure injury risk assessment in critically ill pediatric patients in Brazil. Its accuracy was similar to that of the Braden Q Scale.

Atopic Dermatitis and Water: Is There an Optimum Water Intake Level for Improving Atopic Skin?

Water is a vital nutrient with innumerable functions for every living cell. The functions of human skin include protection against dehydration of the body. Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic pruritic inflammatory skin disease that presents with dry skin, erythematous and eczematous lesions, and lichenification. This paper discusses the question of whether extra water intake in children with AD affects skin hydration and the skin barrier function. Among the methods used to treat dry skin, topical leave-on products are the first-line treatment, intended to improve hydration and the skin barrier function. The effectiveness of adequate water intake as a measure to treat dry skin is still under debate. Normal skin hydration increases with dietary water intake, particularly in those with prior lower water consumption. Skin dryness in AD is instrumental to the itch and inflammation cycle, contributing to barrier impairment and aggravating disease severity and flares. Certain emollients provide significant hydration to AD skin, with relief of dryness and reduction in barrier impairment, disease severity, and flares. Further investigations are needed to evaluate the optimum water intake levels in children with AD, as important questions remain unanswered, namely, does oral hydration provide relief of skin dryness and reduce barrier impairment, disease severity, and flares; is there any additional benefit from using mineral or thermal spring water; or is there a need to specifically study the fluid/water intake in children with AD and food allergy (FA) restrictions?

How do the skin barrier and microbiome adapt to the extra-uterine environment after birth? Implications for the clinical practice

The multiple protective functions of the skin derive from the interactions between epithelial skin and immune cells as well as the commensal microbiota. Developed in the last trimester of intra-uterine life, the skin barrier adapts dynamically after birth. Specific differences in the structure and physiology have been disclosed between infant and adult skin. The stratum corneum of infants is thinner and structured by thicker corneocytes with a more anisotropic surface in comparison to adult skin. Lower levels of the natural moisturizing factor and its constituents, together with the increased protease activity in the epidermis result in dry baby skin and ongoing adaptation of the desquamation to the extra-uterine environment. Infant epidermis is characterized by an accelerated proliferation rate and clinically competent permeability barrier in term neonates, despite the higher baseline values of transepidermal water loss in infants. The skin surface of newborns is less acidic, which could increase susceptibility to diaper and atopic dermatitis. Immediately after birth, skin is colonized by commensal bacteria-a process dependent on the mode of delivery and of major importance for the maturation of the immune system. Skin bacterial diversity and dysbiosis have been related to different pathology such as atopic and seborrheic dermatitis. This paper focuses on the ongoing structural, functional and biochemical adaptation of the human skin barrier after birth. We discuss the interactions on the 'skin barrier/ microbiota/ immune system' axis and their role in the development of competent functional integrity of the epidermal barrier.

Treating allergies via skin - Recent advances in cutaneous allergen immunotherapy

Subcutaneous allergen immunotherapy has been practiced clinically for decades to treat airborne allergies. Recently, the cutaneous route, which exploits the immunocompetence of the skin has received attention, which is evident from attempts to use it to treat peanut allergy. Delivery of allergens into the skin is inherently impeded by the barrier imposed by stratum corneum, the top layer of the skin. While the stratum corneum barrier must be overcome for efficient allergen delivery, excessive disruption of this layer can predispose to development of allergic inflammation. Thus, the most desirable allergen delivery approach must provide a balance between the level of skin disruption and the amount of allergen delivered. Such an approach should aim to achieve high allergen delivery efficiency across various skin types independent of age and ethnicity, and optimize variables such as safety profile, allergen dosage, treatment frequency, application time and patient compliance. The ability to precisely quantify the amount of allergen being delivered into the skin is crucial since it can allow for allergen dose optimization and can promote consistency and reproducibility in treatment response. In this work we review prominent cutaneous delivery approaches, and offer a perspective on further improvisation in cutaneous allergen-specific immunotherapy.

"Normal" TEWL-How Can it be Defined?: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Transepidermal water loss (TEWL), the total non-eccrine sweat water evaporating from a given area of epidermis over time, is a measurement of skin barrier integrity. Skin diseases (e.g. psoriasis and atopic dermatitis) often result in transient increases in TEWL, so knowledge of "normal" TEWL values may be used to predict disease progression in dermatological settings. Variables such as age, race, and anatomic location have been suggested to affect TEWL, but current regulatory agencies have failed to control for additional variables of interest. Thus, this review summarizes variables that may cause TEWL variation.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature search was performed using Embase, PubMed, and Web of Science to find human studies that provided data on variables affecting TEWL.

RESULTS

31 studies, analyzing 22 affecting TEWL, were identified. Variables causing increased TEWL were mask-use (n=1), Dry Eye Disease (n=1), Chronic Venous Disease (n=1), Coronary Artery Disease (n=1), age (infants vs. adults) (n=4), nourishment in infants (n=1), stress within individuals (n=2), Body Mass Index (n=2), bathing versus showering (n=2), and scratching/friction (n=1). Variables with decreases in TEWL were genetic variability with SNPs on chromosome 9q34.3 (n=1) and cancer-cachexia (n=1).

CONCLUSION

We summarized 12 variables that impact TEWL and are not typically controlled for in experimental settings. Therefore, defining normal TEWL may currently be problematic. Thus, regulatory agencies should provide stricter guidelines on proper measurement of TEWL to minimize human introduced TEWL variation, and we should continue to examine factors impacting individual skin integrity.

Transepidermal water loss (TEWL): Environment and pollution-A systematic review

Introduction

Transepidermal water loss (TEWL) is an objective measurement of skin integrity measured as the amount of water lost across the stratum corneum. TEWL varies greatly across variables such as age and anatomic location, and disruptions in the skin barrier have been linked to inflammatory dermatoses such as psoriasis and atopic dermatitis. Impact of environmental conditions and pollution on TEWL has yet to be determined. Accordingly, this review summarizes effects of environmental conditions and pollution on TEWL.

Methods

A comprehensive literature search was performed using Embase, PubMed, and Web of Science to find human studies that provided data on environmental conditions and/or pollution and TEWL.

Results

In total, 15 studies were included, with 11 studies examining environmental and seasonal conditions on TEWL and four examining pollution. All studies examining pollution showed increased TEWL in people exposed to particulate matter or NO2. Contradictory results were found on the effects of season and climate across the 11 studies, with no consensus reached.

Conclusion

Exposure to pollution is reported to cause increases in TEWL, likely through free radical damage. Significant discrepancies exist among current literature as to the effects of season and climate on TEWL. There is a need to continue examining environmental variables other than temperature and relative humidity, such as atmospheric and steam pressure, that may impact TEWL.

Targeted allergen-specific immunotherapy within the skin improves allergen delivery to induce desensitization to peanut

Aim: Epicutaneous immunotherapy (EPIT) with peanut has been demonstrated to be safe but efficacy may be limited by allergen uptake through the skin barrier. To enhance allergen uptake into the skin, the authors used peanut-coated microneedles and compared them with EPIT in a peanut allergy mouse model. Methods: Sensitized mice were treated with peanut-coated microneedles or peanut-EPIT and then challenged with peanut to determine protection. Results: Treatment with peanut-coated microneedles was safe and showed enhanced desensitization to peanut compared with peanut-EPIT administered via a similar schedule. Protection was associated with reduced Th2 immune responses and mast cell accumulation in the intestine. Conclusion: Peanut-coated microneedles have the potential to present a safe method of improving allergen delivery for cutaneous immunotherapy.

Did human evolution in skin of color enhance the TEWL barrier?

United States will soon be a nation of color; however, much of our knowledge of normal skin disease, and treatment thereof is based on white skin. We and others have attempted to elucidate any potential differences and advantages/disadvantages in skin function that have emerged during homo sapiens evolution post major migration from Eastern Africa. We investigated differences in one stratum corneum function by examining transepidermal water loss (TEWL) measurements in skin of color compared to Caucasian skin. TEWL, a measure of insensible water loss through stratum corneum, plays a major role in human survival. A comprehensive literature search was conducted to procure relevant papers that measured baseline TEWL in skin of color and Caucasian skin. The data show wide contradiction in results for all skin of color groups and white skin and, therefore, no conclusion can be made based on this question. We suggest this variation may be due to experimental confounding variables that impact TEWL quantification, such as anatomic site and sample size subject to further analysis and focus.

Epidermal barrier function in human immunodeficiency virus-infected South African infants compared with uninfected

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Infant human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection remains a problem in different parts of the world. Early signs of disease manifestation often involve infant skin. This study compared the skin barrier properties of HIV infected with uninfected infants.

METHODS

A cross-sectional descriptive study was undertaken with HIV positive and HIV negative unexposed African infants (6 weeks-12 months). Both had normal birth weight for age, no pre-existing dermatoses or co-infections, and received all their vaccinations timeously. The HIV positive infants were on antiretroviral (ARV) therapy. The skin barrier quality was assessed by measuring the transepidermal water loss (TEWL) and skin surface hydration (SSH) on the dorsal arm (1) and the inner forearm (2).

RESULTS

Eighty-six HIV negative and 43 HIV positive African children were recruited. There were significant differences between the two groups based on the presence of HIV infection. In both sites, measured TEWL rates were significantly higher for the HIV positive children. There was a nonsignificant difference between the SSH values for site 1 and a marginally significant difference for site 2, with the average values higher in the HIV positive group. In both groups, TEWL rates and SSH values were significantly lower on site 1 compared to site 2.

CONCLUSION

Differences in skin barrier properties of HIV infected and uninfected children may exist. The altered skin barrier in infected children may be one of the factors that predisposes them to various inflammatory and infectious dermatoses. Improving the skin barrier may assist in preventing these conditions.

Expert consensus on ceramides containing skincare in newborns and infants and potential mitigation of atopic dermatitis

INTRODUCTION

The vulnerable skin of neonates and infants is still developing anatomically and functionally and more susceptible to skin barrier disruption. The current consensus paper explores challenges in caring for neonates and infants' skin, skincare use and evaluates the role of ceramides (CERs) containing cleansers and moisturizers.

EVIDENCE AQUISITION

A panel of eight clinicians who treat neonates and infants developed a consensus paper on new-born and infant skin barrier integrity and CERs-containing skincare importance. The consensus process consisted of a modified Delphi technique. The selected information from the literature searches, coupled with the panel's opinion and experience, was used to adopt statements to provide clinical data for paediatric dermatologists, dermatologists, and paediatric healthcare providers who treat neonates and infants.

EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS

Increasingly, evidence supports skincare starting early in life, recognizing the benefits of ongoing daily use of non-alkaline cleansers and moisturizers to maintain skin barrier function. Skincare for neonates and infants should be safe, effective, and fragrance as well as sensitizing agent-free. Skincare with CERs may benefit the stratum corneum's lipid and water content.

CONCLUSIONS

When applied from birth onwards, gentle cleansers and moisturizers containing barrier lipids help maintain the protective skin barrier and soothe the skin with long-term moisturizing benefits.

A Children's Health Perspective on Nano- and Microplastics

BACKGROUND

Pregnancy, infancy, and childhood are sensitive windows for environmental exposures. Yet the health effects of exposure to nano- and microplastics (NMPs) remain largely uninvestigated or unknown. Although plastic chemicals are a well-established research topic, the impacts of plastic particles are unexplored, especially with regard to early life exposures.

OBJECTIVES

This commentary aims to summarize the knowns and unknowns around child- and pregnancy-relevant exposures to NMPs via inhalation, placental transfer, ingestion and breastmilk, and dermal absorption.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature search to map the state of the science on NMPs found 37 primary research articles on the health relevance of NMPs during early life and revealed major knowledge gaps in the field. We discuss opportunities and challenges for quantifying child-specific exposures (e.g., NMPs in breastmilk or infant formula) and health effects, in light of global inequalities in baby bottle use, consumption of packaged foods, air pollution, hazardous plastic disposal, and regulatory safeguards. We also summarize research needs for linking child health and NMP exposures and address the unknowns in the context of public health action.

DISCUSSION

Few studies have addressed child-specific sources of exposure, and exposure estimates currently rely on generic assumptions rather than empirical measurements. Furthermore, toxicological research on NMPs has not specifically focused on child health, yet children's immature defense mechanisms make them particularly vulnerable. Apart from few studies investigating the placental transfer of NMPs, the physicochemical properties (e.g., polymer, size, shape, charge) driving the absorption, biodistribution, and elimination in early life have yet to be benchmarked. Accordingly, the evidence base regarding the potential health impacts of NMPs in early life remains sparse. Based on the evidence to date, we provide recommendations to fill research gaps, stimulate policymakers and industry to address the safety of NMPs, and point to opportunities for families to reduce early life exposures to plastic. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP9086.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials evaluating the efficacy of autologous skin cell suspensions for re-epithelialization of acute partial thickness burn injuries and split-thickness skin graft donor sites

BACKGROUND

This systematic review evaluated the efficacy of autologous skin cell suspensions (ASCS) on the re-epithelialization of partial thickness burn injuries and skin graft donor site wounds.

METHODS

Four databases (EMBASE, Google Scholar, MEDLINE, Web of Science), grey literature and select journal hand-searching identified studies from 1975 - 2020. Randomized trials evaluating partial thickness burn management with non-cultured ASCS compared to any other intervention were included. Time to re-epithelialization (TTRE) was the primary outcome. Three independent researchers completed screening, data extraction and certainty of evidence assessment using Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool and Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation.

RESULTS

Five trials (n = 347) reported on adults (2 trials) and children (1 trial) with burn wounds, and adults with donor site wounds (2 trials). The effect of ASCS compared to control on TTRE in adult burn wounds was not estimable. TTRE was shorter in pediatric burn wounds (SMD -1.75 [95% CI: -3.45 to -0.05]) and adult donor site wounds (SMD-5.71 [95% CI: -10.61 to-0.81]) treated with ASCS. The certainty of evidence was very low.

CONCLUSION

Compared to standard care, ACSC may reduce pediatric partial thickness burn wound and adult split-thickness skin graft donor site TTRE.

REGISTRATION

PROSPERO CRD42019133171.

Deciphering the role of skin surface microbiome in skin health: an integrative multi-omics approach reveals three distinct metabolite-microbe clusters

The advent of 16S RNA profiling and shotgun metagenomics has enabled a holistic approach to the study of the skin microbiome composition. Despite the interesting findings in this rapidly developing scientific area, the big question remains: What role does the microbiome play in skin physiology? To begin answering this question, we employed an integrative methodology for microbiome and metabolome analysis of skin surface samples collected from the volar forearm of healthy 3 to 6-month-old infants. While the infant skin metabolome was dominated by amino acids, lipids, and xenobiotics, the primary phyla of the microbiome were Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, and Proteobacteria. Zooming in on the species level revealed a large contribution of commensals belonging to the Cutibacterium and Staphylococcus genera, including Cutibacterium acnes, Staphylococcus epidermidis, and Staphylococcus aureus. This heterogeneity was further highlighted when combining the microbiome with metabolome data. Integrative analyses delineated the co-existence of three distinct metabolite-microbe clusters: one dominated by Cutibacterium linked to hydrophobic elements of the skin barrier, one associating Staphylococcus genus with amino acids relevant to the water holding capacity and pH regulation of the skin surface and one characterized by Streptococcus and independent of any particular metabolomic profile.

Dynamic trends in skin barrier function from birth to age 6 months and infantile atopic dermatitis: A Chinese prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Skin barrier functions develop after birth and may be related to skin disorders in infants. We aimed to assess associations between dynamic trends of four skin barrier functional parameters in early life with infant atopic dermatitis (AD).

METHODS

Based on the prospective cohort MKNFOAD (NCT02889081), we examined transepidermal water loss (TEWL), stratum corneum hydration (SCH), skin pH, and sebum content at five anatomical sites (cheek, forehead, forearm, abdomen, and lower leg) in 418 term infants at birth, 42 days, and 6 months. Trend differences by sex and association with AD at age 1 year were tested using variance analyses. Associations of the parameters with AD risk were tested using discrete time survival analysis, adjusting extensive covariates including parental history of allergy, infant's sex, birth weight (kg), and delivery mode. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence interval (CIs) were reported.

RESULTS

Overall TEWL and SCH appeared trends of increase while skin surface pH and sebum content showed trends of decrease within the first six postnatal months. Sex differences were significant for sebum content only (p < 0.001). After adjustment for parental and children covariates, cheek TEWL at birth (OR = 1.26, 95% CI 1.00-1.57, p = 0.045) and 42 days (OR = 1.52, 95% CI 1.17-1.97, p = 0.002) were significantly associated with increased AD risk. Associations were not observed between SCH, skin pH, and sebum content at birth or 42 days with AD.

CONCLUSIONS

Skin barrier functions of Chinese term infants varied nonlinearly after birth. Higher postnatal TEWL levels in early life indicate higher risk of early-onset AD.

Effectiveness of topical silicone gel and pressure garment therapy for burn scar prevention and management in children 12-months postburn: A parallel group randomised controlled trial

OBJECTIVE

The longer-term effectiveness of silicone and pressure burn scar interventions was evaluated at 12-months postburn.

DESIGN

Parallel group, randomised trial.

SETTING

Hospital outpatient clinics, research centre.

PARTICIPANTS

Children referred for burn scar management following grafted or spontaneously healed acute burn injuries or scar reconstruction surgery.

INTERVENTIONS

Participants were randomised to: (1) topical silicone gel only, (2) pressure garment only, or (3) combined topical silicone gel and pressure garment.

MAIN MEASURES

Primary outcomes were scar thickness (blinded ultrasound measurement) and itch intensity (caregiver proxy-report, numeric rating scale).

RESULTS

Of 153 participants randomised who received the interventions (silicone n = 51, pressure garment n = 49, combined n = 53), 86 were followed-up at 12-months postburn (n = 34, n = 28, n = 24). No differences were identified for the primary outcomes using intention-to-treat analysis. Scar thickness mean difference (95% confidence interval) = 0.00 cm (-0.04, 0.05); -0.03 cm (-0.07, 0.02); 0.03 cm (-0.02, 0.08) and scar itch = 0.09 (-0.88, 1.06); -0.21 (-1.21, 0.79); 0.30 (-0.73, 1.32) for silicone vs pressure; silicone vs combined and combined vs pressure respectively. No serious adverse effects occurred.

CONCLUSION

Similar to short-term results, the combined intervention offered no statistically or clinically significant benefit for improving the primary outcomes compared to each intervention alone. No differences in the primary outcomes were identified between the silicone and pressure alone groups.

Cultural adaptation of the Glamorgan Scale to Brazilian Portuguese: Pressure Injury in Pediatrics

OBJECTIVE

to describe the methodological process of cultural adaptation of the Glamorgan Scale to Brazilian Portuguese.

METHOD

a methodological study of translation and cultural adaptation of the Glamorgan Scale, following the six stages: initial translation, synthesis of translations, back-translation, committee of experts, pre-test, and submission of the adapted version to the author for approval. The committee of experts was composed of five physicians and, during evaluation, a semantic, idiomatic, cultural and conceptual analysis was carried out. The agreement and representativeness of the items were assessed using the Content Validity Index. A minimum value of 80% agreement was considered.

RESULTS

all stages of the translation and cross-cultural adaptation process were satisfactory. In the evaluation made by the committee of experts, all items obtained an agreement greater than 80% in the first evaluation round. The pre-test stage allowed for a critical overview of the instrument, where few modifications were suggested by the participants.

CONCLUSION

the Glamorgan Scale was translated and culturally adapted to Brazilian Portuguese. Future psychometric studies are necessary to validate the scale.

Skin hydration and transepidermal water loss after bathing compared between immersion and showering

BACKGROUND

Various methods of bathing may affect skin properties differently.

AIMS

To compare the effects of immersion and showering on skin hydration and transepidermal water loss (TEWL).

METHOD

This experimental study included healthy volunteers whose forearms were immersed and showered for 3 minutes. Skin hydration and TEWL were assessed serially before and after immersion and showering of volunteer forearms.

RESULTS

Seventy-eight healthy volunteers (49 females, 29 males) were enrolled with an age range of 12-55 years (mean 31.41 ± 10.33). Both methods significantly increased skin hydration and TEWL (P < .001). The capacitance value significantly increased immediately after bathing, and then rapidly decreased within 3 minutes. It returned to baseline by 10 minutes after bathing. There was no statistically significant difference of capacitance between the two methods at any measurement (P > .05). TEWL at every measurement after bathing was significantly increased compared to baseline for both bathing methods (P < .001). The highest TEWL was observed immediately after bathing, but then significantly decreased compared to the previous measurement (P < .001).

CONCLUSION

Immersion and showering similarly demonstrated significant increase in skin hydration and TEWL. The increment of capacitance after bathing returned to baseline level within 10 minutes.

Birthweight and Environmental Conditions Impact Skin Barrier Adaptation in Neonates Receiving Natural Oil Massage

Introduction

Skin interventions have been implemented to reduce neonatal mortality, demonstrating the skin's role in neonatal innate immunity. We examined the impact of birthweight and environmental conditions on skin integrity in infants receiving oil massage in rural Nepal.

Methods

In a community-based cluster randomized controlled trial, 991 premature and full-term infants were grouped by birthweight as: (1) 920-1,560 g, (2) 1,570-2,450 g, (3) 2,460-2,990 g, and (4) 3,000-4,050 g and by high or low heat index (HI). Skin integrity was measured as erythema, rash, dryness, pH, protein concentration, and transepidermal water loss (TEWL).

Results

Skin pH was higher for the smallest (group 1) than the largest infants (group 4) and higher for group 2 than 3 and 4. Arm and leg rash differed for all 4 groups, with the least amount of rash for the smallest babies. Erythema was lower for group 1 than all others. The lower day 1 values for pH, TEWL and protein at high versus low HI remained lower over 28 days. The pH reduction was faster at high HI. Erythema (arm, leg) was more severe at high HI. Rash severity was greater at high HI for arms and legs every day.

Conclusions

Birthweight influenced the skin response to oil massage. The smallest infants had the lowermost skin irritation, suggesting diminished ability to mount an inflammatory response. High HI may be protective for premature infants in low resource settings.

Global differences in atopic dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic inflammatory skin disorder, with a highly variable prevalence worldwide. Recent evidence, however, has shown an increase in prevalence in the Asia Pacific region. Nevertheless, most of the published literature has focused mainly on Western populations, and only few clinical trials have included subgroups of other ethnic populations. Reasons for the observed ethnic and geographical differences in AD are not well established. This calls into question the need for a better understanding of AD pathogenesis and inter-ethnic differences in clinical and immuno-phenotypes. These differences may reflect inherent variability in disease mechanisms between populations, which in turn may impact upon treatment responses such as biologics that are currently tailored mainly to a specific immuno-phenotype (T-helper type 2 dominant). In this article, we reviewed existing literature on the prevalence of AD globally, highlighting differences, if any, in the clinical and immuno-phenotypes of AD between different ethnicities. We discussed genetic and environmental factors that affect AD in different populations and therapeutic considerations. Our review highlights AD as a disease with ethnic-dependent clinical and immunological heterogeneity and calls for greater inclusion of ethnic diversity in future research in order to develop targeted treatments.

The Most Useful Pharmaceutical Formulations (Individualized Medications) in Pediatric Dermatology: A Review

The administration of appropriate doses of active ingredients and excipients is crucial for achieving desired treatment outcomes in pediatric dermatology. A number of factors need to be considered, including the characteristics of the lesion, the patient, and the drug. An additional challenge in pediatric settings is the limited number of commercially available formulations suitable for use in children. Drug compounding, which is the preparation of medications tailored to the needs of individual patients, is a good alternative for pediatric populations for a number of reasons. Using a customized compound, the clinician can prescribe formulations that contain the optimal dose of the active ingredients within acceptable limits and the most suitable vehicle and formulation components. Compounding can also be used to combine several active ingredients in a single medication and even adapt the vehicle to the characteristics of the lesion and the needs of the patient. The pharmaceutical formulations described in this review are based on extensive clinical experience and can be customized to meet individual needs.

Adapted Crusting Technique in Children with Peristomal Lesions: A Case Series

OBJECTIVE

To describe the care of pediatric patients who had a gastrostomy and developed peristomal lesions and received a systematic single adapted crusting technique in a pediatric ICU in a tertiary Brazilian hospital.

METHODS

An analysis of six cases presenting traumatic, noninfectious peristomal lesions with ostium enlargement resulting in gastric residual leaks. All six patients received the same treatment over 7 to 15 days.

RESULTS

Lesion improvement was observed in all patients after 48 hours and considered attributable to the standard treatment recommended by ostomy professionals.

CONCLUSIONS

The adapted crusting technique was effective in the treatment of children with peristomal lesions. This technique may be beneficial to other patient and organizational outcomes such as improving safety of care, decreasing pain and discomfort, reducing nursing workload and hospital costs, and improving quality of life.

A Randomized Pilot Clinical Assessment Of Three Skincare Regimens On Skin Conditions In Infants

Introduction

Few data are available on the comparison between the effects on infant skin of skin care products and those of water alone.

Patients and methods

In this single-center, evaluator-blind, parallel-group pilot study, healthy infants were randomized to near-daily washing for 12 weeks (starting in the summer and finishing in the winter months) with a mild liquid baby wash followed by use of baby lotion (wash+lotion), water followed by baby lotion (water+lotion), or water alone. Clinical and instrumental assessments of skin moisturization and barrier function were made.

Results

As expected the skin condition in all groups was affected by the change of the season. The skin of infants in all groups was mildly deteriorated (clinical grading) and with reduced moisture levels and increased barrier function. Instrumental measurements indicated that skin moisture and barrier function were better maintained in the wash+lotion and water+lotion groups than in the water-only group at week 12. Clinical assessment scores increased slightly over 12 weeks in all groups (P<0.05). At week 12, the wash+lotion group (n = 44) had significantly less change from baseline in overall skin condition and softness (lower scores) than did the water+lotion (n = 43) or water-only (n = 43) groups. The wash+lotion regimen maintained stable erythema and rash scores with lower mean values over time than in the other groups.

Conclusion

A regimen of a liquid baby wash and a baby skin lotion for 12 weeks resulted in less detrimental changes in instrumental and clinical measures of skin than using water and lotion or water alone.

Microneedles coated with peanut allergen enable desensitization of peanut sensitized mice

The prevalence of peanut allergies has escalated over the last 20 years, yet there are no FDA approved treatments for peanut allergies. In this study we evaluated the potential of microneedles to deliver peanut protein extract (PE) into skin and assessed if the ensuing immune responses could desensitize mice that were sensitized to peanuts. Peanut sensitized mice were either treated through cutaneous immunotherapy using PE-coated microneedles or not treated, and then orally challenged with PE. After oral challenge, the clinical symptoms of peanut-induced anaphylaxis were significantly lower in the microneedle treated mice as compared to untreated mice, and this was accompanied by down-regulation of systemic anaphylaxis mediators such as histamine and mast cell protease-1 (MCPT-1) in the microneedles treated group. Overall, there was an up-regulation of Th1 cytokines (IL-2 and IFN-γ) as compared to Th2 cytokines (IL-4 and IL-5) in splenocyte culture supernatants of the microneedle treated group as compared to untreated group, suggesting that microneedles promoted immune modulation towards the Th1 pathway. Furthermore, mice treated with PE-coated microneedles were observed to retain integrity of their small intestine villi and had reduced eosinophilic infiltration as compared to the untreated but peanut sensitized mice, which further confirmed the desensitization capability of peanut cutaneous immunotherapy using coated microneedles. Thus, our current study represents a novel minimally invasive microneedle based cutaneous immunotherapy, which may provide a novel route of desensitization for the treatment of peanut allergies.

Facial skin mapping: from single point bio-instrumental evaluation to continuous visualization of skin hydration, barrier function, skin surface pH, and sebum in different ethnic skin types

Dry skin is one of the most important concerns of consumers worldwide. Despite huge efforts over several decades, the personal care industry still does not offer a perfect solution to satisfy the unmet needs of consumers for moisturising treatments in different ethnic groups. The paucity of data for the underlying cellular and biochemical problems in, and the effects of moisturisers on photodamaged facial skin may partly explain this. Mainly, single point measurements are used to understand the effects of products on skin physiology even on surrogate skin sites such as the non‐photodamaged volar forearm. Some groups have developed discontinuous facial maps of skin biophysical properties, however, in 2014 a continuous facial analysis of bio‐instrumental evaluations was developed using a heat map approach. These maps enabled a continuous visualization of features that not only revealed an unexpected complexity of facial skin but also indicated that use of surrogate skin sites for facial skin is inappropriate. We have demonstrated that remarkable gradients of skin hydration, TEWL, skin surface pH and sebum exist within short distances across the face and the gradients are distinctive among different ethnic groups. In addition, these studies have demonstrated that darkly‐pigmented individuals do not necessarily have a better skin barrier function than their less‐pigmented counterparts and that Caucasians have a lower facial skin surface pH compared with more pigmented subjects. Overall, there are no correlations between capacitance, TEWL and skin surface pH including individual topology angle values. Novel 3D camera approaches have also been used to facilitate a more precise assignment of measurement sites and visualisation. The 3D facial colour mappings illustrated precisely the local moisturising effects of a moisturising cream. There were subtle ethnic differences in efficacy that may be related to underlying skin biochemistry and/or ethnic differences in product application. A placebo‐controlled study using conductance measurements in Chinese subjects is also reported. Finally, a new whole face statistical approach has been taken to prove differences in skin parameters but also of moisturiser treatment that adds further to our understanding of the ethnic differences in skin physiology and product application. This paper reviews the background of the development and application of this methodology.

Comparison of Skin Structural and Functional Parameters in Well-Nourished and Moderately Undernourished Infants

BACKGROUND

Little is known about the impact of nutrition on the development of skin structure and function in infants.

METHODS

We investigated epidermal, dermal, and subcutis parameters of aged-matched well-nourished and moderately undernourished infants in this single-center, cross-sectional, noninterventional study using noninvasive methods (skin caliper, 20-MHz sonography, transepidermal water loss, skin pH, and corneometry). Plasma fatty acids were determined as an indicator of nutritional differences. 310 infants from different age groups, i.e., 1 week, 4 weeks, and 6, 9, 12, 24, and 36 months were included. Approximately half of each age group was well-nourished (WHO reference values weight-for-height/length Zscore: -0.75 ≤ Z ≤ 0.75) and the other half was moderately undernourished (-3 ≤ Z < -2).

RESULTS

Structural maturational differences in the deeper dermis and subcutis regions of the skin and subtle functional changes in the epidermis were observed in moderately undernourished infants without notable clinical symptoms. Reduced skin barrier function or skin hydration were not observed in the undernourished infants, and skin pH shifted to more acidic values in this group.

CONCLUSION

These findings reveal a greater impact of moderate undernutrition on the development of the dermis and subcutis and suggest that critical epidermal functions such as skin barrier and pH are mostly maintained.

Comparative study of vulva and abdominal skin microbiota of healthy females with high and average BMI

Background

Obesity is known to modulate human health in a number of ways including altering the microbiome of the gut. Very few studies have examined the how obesity may affect the microbiomes of sites distant to the gut. We hypothesized that vulva and abdominal skin may be especially susceptible to body mass index (BMI)-induced alterations in biophysical properties and the microbiome due increased maceration and skin folds at those sites. The aim of this study was to determine if high BMI (≥30) was associated with alterations in the biophysical properties and microbiomes of vulva and abdominal skin.

Results

The vulvar microbial communities of healthy reproductive-aged females were examined using 16S rRNA sequencing techniques. Our results show that vulvar pH of women with high body mass index (BMI) was statistically higher than that of women with average BMI. Phylogenetic analysis of the vulvar microbiota indicated that women with average BMI have a predominately Lactobacillus-dominated flora, whereas women with high BMI and higher pH were predominately colonized by Finegoldia and Corynebacterium. This BMI-associated shift in microbiota was not observed in samples collected from the exposed skin around the belly, indicating the effect is not global.

Conclusion

These results indicate that physiological changes associated with changes in BMI may modulate the vulva microbiome.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12866-019-1391-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Epidermal barrier function in healthy black South African infants compared with adults

A cross-sectional observational study of 43 infants and 60 adult women was performed in South Africa to assess skin barrier (SB) function through noninvasive quantification of transepidermal water loss (TEWL) and skin surface hydration (SSH). TEWL and SSH improved with age and in anatomic locations with chronic environmental exposure in keeping with reported trends in other ethnicities.

Infant Skin Barrier, Structure, and Enzymatic Activity Differ from Those of Adult in an East Asian Cohort

Skin physiology is dynamically changing over the first years of postnatal life; however, ethnic variations are still unclear. The aim of this study was to characterize infant skin barrier function, epidermal structure, and desquamation-related enzymatic activity as compared to that of adult skin in an East Asian population. The skin properties of 52 infants (3-24 months) and 27 adults (20-40 years) were assessed by noninvasive methods at the dorsal forearm and upper inner arm. Transepidermal water loss and skin surface conductance values were higher and more dispersed for infants compared to adults. Infant skin surface pH was slightly lower than adult on the dorsal forearm. The infant SC and viable epidermis were thinner compared to adults with differences that were site-specific. Although the chymotrypsin-like activity for infant skin was comparable to adult level, the caseinolytic specific activity was significantly higher for the infant cohort. These observations indicate a differently controlled pattern of corneocyte desquamation in infants. In conclusion, structural and functional differences exist between infant and adult skin in the East Asian population pointing to dynamic maturation of the epidermal barrier early in life.

Ethnic differences in stratum corneum functions between Chinese and Thai infants residing in Bangkok, Thailand

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Ethnic and racial differences in infant skin have not been well characterized. The purpose of this study was to establish whether there are ethnic differences and similarities in the stratum corneum (SC) functions of Thai and Chinese infants.

METHODS

Healthy infants 6 to 24 months of age (N = 60; 30 Thai, 30 Chinese) who resided in Bangkok, Thailand, were enrolled. Transepidermal water loss (TEWL) and SC hydration (capacitance) on the thigh, buttock, and upper arm were measured. Ceramide content was determined in the SC on the upper arm.

RESULTS

SC hydration was not remarkably different between the two ethnicities at any site measured, but TEWL was significantly higher in Chinese infants than in Thai infants at all sites. Hydration of the SC was not significantly correlated with age in either ethnicity. TEWL had significant but weak correlations with age on the thigh and upper arm in Thai infants. Ceramide content was significantly higher in Chinese SC than in Thai SC. No relationship between ceramide content and TEWL or hydration was observed in either ethnicity.

CONCLUSION

The significant differences in TEWL and ceramide contents between Chinese and Thai infant skin could prove useful in designing skin care and diapering products that are best suited for each ethnicity.

Properties of Skin in Chinese Infants: Developmental Changes in Ceramides and in Protein Secondary Structure of the Stratum Corneum

The properties of infant skin regarding its structure and stratum corneum (SC) properties during development compared to adult skin have been reported only for a few races and body sites. The aim of this study was to understand the developmental changes of skin properties in Chinese infants, focusing on SC ceramides and protein secondary structure, which are important for skin barrier function. Three body sites with distinct characteristics (cheeks, inner upper arms, and buttocks) were assessed. Sixty pairs of Chinese infants and their mothers were measured for SC hydration, transepidermal water loss, ceramide levels, sebum with an ester bond, and protein secondary structure of superficial SC. Skin hydration decreased with age at all body sites. TEWL was similar between the 2–12- and 13–24-month-old groups but was higher than the adult group at the buttocks and inner upper arms and was equal to the adult group at the cheeks. These differences coincided with differences in protein secondary structure. Ceramide and sebum levels were lower in the infant groups. We conclude that both the SC functions and the components of infant skin are still developing and are not fully adapted as in adult skin at each body site examined.

Skin Health Connected to the Use of Absorbent Hygiene Products: A Review

Over the past 50 years, absorbent hygiene products such as baby diapers and incontinence products have become essential features of modern day life. Through innovation and enhanced technology, their design, composition and performance have been dramatically upgraded from their early forms, and they have transformed the lives of millions of people, improving their quality of life. Skin health related to the use of absorbent hygiene products has accordingly also greatly improved. Still, the wearing of absorbent hygiene products will affect the skin, and for some users the changes in microclimate, mechanical interactions and the exposure to urine and faeces may result in irritant contact dermatitis, i.e. diaper dermatitis (DD) or incontinence-associated dermatitis (IAD). Babies with developing skin and the elderly with deteriorating skin functions who are the most frequent users of absorbent hygiene products are more vulnerable to the causal factors. Although irritant reactions are the most common, allergic contact dermatitis should be considered if a DD/IAD fails to improve by recommended actions. There is also a connection between IAD and pressure ulcer development of which it is important to be aware. A holistic approach of using high-quality absorbent hygiene products in combination with appropriate skin care will help maintaining good skin health.

Change in skin properties over the first 10 years of life: a cross-sectional study

This study investigated skin characteristics in healthy Chinese children aged from 1 to 10 years and compared these findings with similar measures from the child’s mothers. Children aged 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 10 years (n = 29–30 per age group) and the child’s mothers were enrolled in a single-visit cross-sectional study. Clinical parameters evaluated on the face, ventral forearm, and calf were softness, smoothness, erythema, edema, rash, dryness, and scaling. Instrumental evaluations included transepidermal water loss, moisture content, and water-holding capacity. The clinical evaluations indicated a general decrease in softness, smoothness, and overall skin condition with increased child age. In general, the child’s clinical scores were better than in adults. Children had a more permeable skin barrier that matured to adult values by approximately 5 years of age. Mothers had greater skin moisture than children. Clinical and instrumental measures were consistent with skin being softer and smoother and in better overall condition in younger children. As the skin matured with age, higher scores were observed. Instrumental measures demonstrated a more permeable skin barrier in younger children compared with older children and with adults.

Developmental Changes in Skin Barrier and Structure during the First 5 Years of Life

The structure of the stratum corneum (SC) and the corresponding skin barrier develops from before birth up to about 4 years of age. Large subject-to-subject variability within an age group requires a large population to observe trends in skin barrier properties over time. Barrier function, quantified by transepidermal water loss (TEWL) and SC thickness, was measured on the upper inner arm and dorsal forearm in subjects aged 3 months to 4 years (n = 171) and a subset of mothers (n = 44). The rate of skin surface area expansion as a function of age peaked before birth (∼90 cm2/week) and declined to a steady plateau (∼10 cm2/week) by 1 year of age. SC thickness increased and TEWL decreased, but did not reach adult values until 3-4 years of age. A better understanding of how skin hydration changes after birth suggests that barrier function may be related mechanistically to skin surface area expansion.