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de Vries J, de Vries S, Fernie AR. Current and future perspectives for enhancing our understanding of the evolution of plant metabolism. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2024; 379:20240253. [PMID: 39343013 PMCID: PMC11439503 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2024.0253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2024] [Accepted: 07/16/2024] [Indexed: 10/01/2024] Open
Abstract
The special issue 'The evolution of plant metabolism' has brought together original research, reviews and opinions that cover various aspects from the full breath of plant metabolism including its interaction with the environment including other species. Here, we briefly summarize these efforts and attempts to extract a consensus opinion of the best manner in which to tackle this subject both now and in the future. This article is part of the theme issue 'The evolution of plant metabolism'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan de Vries
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, University of Goettingen, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, Goldschmidtstr. 1, Goettingen37077, Germany
- University of Goettingen, Campus Institute Data Science (CIDAS), Goldschmidstr.1, Goettingen37077, Germany
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, University of Goettingen, Goettingen Center for Molecular Biosciences (GZMB), Goldschmidtstr. 1, Goettingen37077, Germany
| | - Sophie de Vries
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, University of Goettingen, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, Goldschmidtstr. 1, Goettingen37077, Germany
| | - Alisdair R. Fernie
- Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Mühlenberg 1, Potsdam-Golm14476, Germany
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2
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Rieseberg TP, Holzhausen A, Bierenbroodspot MJ, Zhang W, Abreu IN, de Vries J. Conserved carotenoid pigmentation in reproductive organs of Charophyceae. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2024; 379:20230372. [PMID: 39343025 PMCID: PMC11449214 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2023.0372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2024] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 06/19/2024] [Indexed: 10/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Sexual reproduction in Charophyceae abounds in complex traits. Their gametangia develop as intricate structures, with oogonia spirally surrounded by envelope cells and richly pigmented antheridia. The red-probably protectant-pigmentation of antheridia is conserved across Charophyceae. Chara tomentosa is, however, unique in exhibiting this pigmentation and also in vegetative tissue. Here, we investigated the two sympatric species, C. tomentosa and Chara baltica, and compared their molecular chassis for pigmentation. Using reversed phase C30 high performance liquid chromatography (RP-C30-HPLC), we uncover that the major pigments are β-carotene, δ-carotene and γ-carotene; using headspace solid-phase microextraction coupled to gas chromatography equipped with a mass spectrometer (HS-SPME-GC-MS), we pinpoint that the unusually large carotenoid pool in C. tomentosa gives rise to diverse volatile apocarotenoids, including abundant 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one. Based on transcriptome analyses, we uncover signatures of the unique biology of Charophycaee and genes for pigment production, including monocyclized carotenoids. The rich carotenoid pool probably serves as a substrate for diverse carotenoid-derived metabolites, signified not only by (i) the volatile apocarotenoids we detected but (ii) the high expression of a gene coding for a cytochrome P450 enzyme related to land plant proteins involved in the biosynthesis of carotenoid-derived hormones. Overall, our data shed light on a key protection strategy of sexual reproduction in the widespread group of macroalgae. The genetic underpinnings of this are shared across hundreds of millions of years of plant and algal evolution. This article is part of the theme issue 'The evolution of plant metabolism'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim P Rieseberg
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, Goldschmidtstr. 1, University of Goettingen , Goettingen 37077, Germany
| | - Anja Holzhausen
- Department of Crop Physiology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Institute of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences, Betty Heimann-Str. 5 , Halle (Saale) 06120, Germany
| | - Maaike J Bierenbroodspot
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, Goldschmidtstr. 1, University of Goettingen , Goettingen 37077, Germany
| | - Wanchen Zhang
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, Goldschmidtstr. 1, University of Goettingen , Goettingen 37077, Germany
| | - Ilka N Abreu
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, Goldschmidtstr. 1, University of Goettingen , Goettingen 37077, Germany
- Department of Plant Biochemistry, Albrecht Haller Institute of Plant Science, Justus-von-Liebig-Weg, University of Goettingen , Goettingen 37077, Germany
- Goettingen Center for Molecular Biosciences (GZMB), Goettingen Metabolomics and Lipidomics Laboratory, Justus-von-Liebig Weg 11, University of Goettingen , Goettingen 37077, Germany
| | - Jan de Vries
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, Goldschmidtstr. 1, University of Goettingen , Goettingen 37077, Germany
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, Goettingen Center for Molecular Biosciences (GZMB), Goldschmidtstr. 1, University of Goettingen , Goettingen 37077, Germany
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, Campus Institute Data Science, University of Goettingen , Goettingen 37077, Germany
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3
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Permann C, Holzinger A. Zygospore formation in Zygnematophyceae predates several land plant traits. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2024; 379:20230356. [PMID: 39343014 PMCID: PMC11449217 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2023.0356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2024] [Revised: 04/18/2024] [Accepted: 04/19/2024] [Indexed: 10/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Recent research on a special type of sexual reproduction and zygospore formation in Zygnematophyceae, the sister group of land plants, is summarized. Within this group, gamete fusion occurs by conjugation. Zygospore development in Mougeotia, Spirogyra and Zygnema is highlighted, which has recently been studied using Raman spectroscopy, allowing chemical imaging and detection of changes in starch and lipid accumulation. Three-dimensional reconstructions after serial block-face scanning electron microscopy (SBF-SEM) or focused ion beam SEM (FIB-SEM) made it possible to visualize and quantify cell wall and organelle changes during zygospore development. The zygospore walls undergo strong modifications starting from uniform thin cell walls to a multilayered structure. The mature cell wall is composed of a cellulosic endospore and exospore and a central mesospore built up by aromatic compounds. In Spirogyra, the exospore and endospore consist of thick layers of helicoidally arranged cellulose fibrils, which are otherwise only known from stone cells of land plants. While starch is degraded during maturation, providing building blocks for cell wall formation, lipid droplets accumulate and fill large parts of the ripe zygospores, similar to spores and seeds of land plants. Overall, data show similarities between streptophyte algae and embryophytes, suggesting that the genetic toolkit for many land plant traits already existed in their shared algal ancestor. This article is part of the theme issue 'The evolution of plant metabolism'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Permann
- Department of Botany, University of Innsbruck, Sternwartestraße 15,6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Andreas Holzinger
- Department of Botany, University of Innsbruck, Sternwartestraße 15,6020 Innsbruck, Austria
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Kunz CF, de Vries S, de Vries J. Plant terrestrialization: an environmental pull on the evolution of multi-sourced streptophyte phenolics. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2024; 379:20230358. [PMID: 39343031 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2023.0358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2024] [Revised: 04/19/2024] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 10/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Phenolic compounds of land plants are varied: they are chemodiverse, are sourced from different biosynthetic routes and fulfil a broad spectrum of functions that range from signalling phytohormones, to protective shields against stressors, to structural compounds. Their action defines the biology of land plants as we know it. Often, their roles are tied to environmental responses that, however, impacted already the algal progenitors of land plants, streptophyte algae. Indeed, many streptophyte algae successfully dwell in terrestrial habitats and have homologues for enzymatic routes for the production of important phenolic compounds, such as the phenylpropanoid pathway. Here, we synthesize what is known about the production of specialized phenolic compounds across hundreds of millions of years of streptophyte evolution. We propose an evolutionary scenario in which selective pressures borne out of environmental cues shaped the chemodiversity of phenolics in streptophytes. This article is part of the theme issue 'The evolution of plant metabolism'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cäcilia F Kunz
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, Institute for Microbiology and Genetics, University of Goettingen , Goettingen 37077, Germany
| | - Sophie de Vries
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, Institute for Microbiology and Genetics, University of Goettingen , Goettingen 37077, Germany
| | - Jan de Vries
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, Institute for Microbiology and Genetics, University of Goettingen , Goettingen 37077, Germany
- Campus Institute Data Science (CIDAS), University of Goettingen , Goettingen 37077, Germany
- Goettingen Center for Molecular Biosciences (GZMB), Department of Applied Bioinformatics, University of Goettingen , Goettingen 37077, Germany
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Bowles AMC. A Year at the Forefront of Streptophyte Algal Evolution. Biol Open 2024; 13:bio061673. [PMID: 39297435 PMCID: PMC11423916 DOI: 10.1242/bio.061673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Land plants originated from an algal ancestor ∼500 million years ago in one of the most important evolutionary events for life on Earth. Extant streptophyte algae, their closest living relatives, have subsequently received much attention to better understand this major evolutionary transition. Streptophyte algae occupy many different environments, have diverse genomes and display contrasting morphologies (e.g. unicellular, filamentous, three-dimensional). This has historically made inferring these evolutionary events challenging. This A Year at the Forefront Review focusses on research published between July 2023 and June 2024 and intends to provide a short overview of recent discoveries, innovations, resources, and hypotheses regarding streptophyte algal evolution. This work has provided mechanistic insights into ancient evolutionary events that prefigured the origin of land plants and raises new questions for future research into streptophyte algae.
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Antreich SJ, Permann C, Xiao N, Tiloca G, Holzinger A. Zygospore development of Spirogyra (Charophyta) investigated by serial block-face scanning electron microscopy and 3D reconstructions. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2024; 15:1358974. [PMID: 38559764 PMCID: PMC10978657 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2024.1358974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Sexual reproduction of Zygnematophyceae by conjugation is a less investigated topic due to the difficulties of the induction of this process and zygospore ripening under laboratory conditions. For this study, we collected field sampled zygospores of Spirogyra mirabilis and three additional Spirogyra strains in Austria and Greece. Serial block-face scanning electron microscopy was performed on high pressure frozen and freeze substituted zygospores and 3D reconstructions were generated, allowing a comprehensive insight into the process of zygospore maturation, involving storage compound and organelle rearrangements. Chloroplasts are drastically changed, while young stages contain both parental chloroplasts, the male chloroplasts are aborted and reorganised as 'secondary vacuoles' which initially contain plastoglobules and remnants of thylakoid membranes. The originally large pyrenoids and the volume of starch granules is significantly reduced during maturation (young: 8 ± 5 µm³, mature: 0.2 ± 0.2 µm³). In contrast, lipid droplets (LDs) increase significantly in number upon zygospore maturation, while simultaneously getting smaller (young: 21 ± 18 µm³, mature: 0.1 ± 0.2 and 0.5 ± 0.9 µm³). Only in S. mirabilis the LD volume increases (34 ± 29 µm³), occupying ~50% of the zygospore volume. Mature zygospores contain barite crystals as confirmed by Raman spectroscopy with a size of 0.02 - 0.05 µm³. The initially thin zygospore cell wall (~0.5 µm endospore, ~0.8 µm exospore) increases in thickness and develops a distinct, electron dense mesospore, which has a reticulate appearance (~1.4 µm) in Spirogyra sp. from Greece. The exo- and endospore show cellulose microfibrils in a helicoidal pattern. In the denser endospore, pitch angles of the microfibril layers were calculated: ~18 ± 3° in S. mirabilis, ~20 ± 3° in Spirogyra sp. from Austria and ~38 ± 8° in Spirogyra sp. from Greece. Overall this study gives new insights into Spirogyra sp. zygospore development, crucial for survival during dry periods and dispersal of this genus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian J. Antreich
- Department of Bionanosciences, University of Natural Resource and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Botany, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | | | - Nannan Xiao
- Department of Bionanosciences, University of Natural Resource and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Giuseppe Tiloca
- Department of Bionanosciences, University of Natural Resource and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
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de Vries S, Melkonian K, Pfeifer L. A multidisciplinary view on plant terrestrialization and the evolution of land plants. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2024; 176:e14264. [PMID: 38527937 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.14264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 03/27/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- Sophie de Vries
- Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, Department of Applied Bioinformatics, University of Goettingen, Goettingen, Germany
| | - Katharina Melkonian
- Laboratoire De Recherche En Sciences Végétales (LRSV), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Evolution of Plant-Microbe Interactions, Pôle de Biotechnologies Végétales, Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - Lukas Pfeifer
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, CAU Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
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Hembach L, Niemeyer PW, Schmitt K, Zegers JMS, Scholz P, Brandt D, Dabisch JJ, Valerius O, Braus GH, Schwarzländer M, de Vries J, Rensing SA, Ischebeck T. Proteome plasticity during Physcomitrium patens spore germination - from the desiccated phase to heterotrophic growth and reconstitution of photoautotrophy. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2024; 117:1466-1486. [PMID: 38059656 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.16574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2023] [Revised: 11/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/08/2023]
Abstract
The establishment of moss spores is considered a milestone in plant evolution. They harbor protein networks underpinning desiccation tolerance and accumulation of storage compounds that can be found already in algae and that are also utilized in seeds and pollen. Furthermore, germinating spores must produce proteins that drive the transition through heterotrophic growth to the autotrophic plant. To get insight into the plasticity of this proteome, we investigated it at five timepoints of moss (Physcomitrium patens) spore germination and in protonemata and gametophores. The comparison to previously published Arabidopsis proteome data of seedling establishment showed that not only the proteomes of spores and seeds are functionally related, but also the proteomes of germinating spores and young seedlings. We observed similarities with regard to desiccation tolerance, lipid droplet proteome composition, control of dormancy, and β-oxidation and the glyoxylate cycle. However, there were also striking differences. For example, spores lacked any obvious storage proteins. Furthermore, we did not detect homologs to the main triacylglycerol lipase in Arabidopsis seeds, SUGAR DEPENDENT1. Instead, we discovered a triacylglycerol lipase of the oil body lipase family and a lipoxygenase as being the overall most abundant proteins in spores. This finding indicates an alternative pathway for triacylglycerol degradation via oxylipin intermediates in the moss. The comparison of spores to Nicotiana tabacum pollen indicated similarities for example in regards to resistance to desiccation and hypoxia, but the overall developmental pattern did not align as in the case of seedling establishment and spore germination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lea Hembach
- Green Biotechnology, Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology (IBBP), University of Münster, 48143, Münster, Germany
| | - Philipp W Niemeyer
- Department of Plant Biochemistry, Albrecht-von-Haller-Institute for Plant Sciences and Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences (GZMB), University of Göttingen, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Kerstin Schmitt
- Department for Molecular Microbiology and Genetics, Genetics and Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences (GZMB) and Service Unit LCMS Protein Analytics, Institute for Microbiology, University of Göttingen, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Jaccoline M S Zegers
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences (GZMB) and Campus Institute Data Science (CIDAS), Institute for Microbiology and Genetics, University of Göttingen, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Patricia Scholz
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes (RDP), UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRAE, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Dennis Brandt
- Plant Energy Biology, Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology (IBBP), University of Münster, 48143, Münster, Germany
| | - Janis J Dabisch
- Green Biotechnology, Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology (IBBP), University of Münster, 48143, Münster, Germany
| | - Oliver Valerius
- Department for Molecular Microbiology and Genetics, Genetics and Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences (GZMB) and Service Unit LCMS Protein Analytics, Institute for Microbiology, University of Göttingen, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Gerhard H Braus
- Department for Molecular Microbiology and Genetics, Genetics and Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences (GZMB) and Service Unit LCMS Protein Analytics, Institute for Microbiology, University of Göttingen, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Markus Schwarzländer
- Plant Energy Biology, Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology (IBBP), University of Münster, 48143, Münster, Germany
| | - Jan de Vries
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences (GZMB) and Campus Institute Data Science (CIDAS), Institute for Microbiology and Genetics, University of Göttingen, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Stefan A Rensing
- Plant Cell Biology, Department of Biology, University of Marburg, Marburg, Germany
- BIOSS Centre for Biological Signalling Studies, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Till Ischebeck
- Green Biotechnology, Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology (IBBP), University of Münster, 48143, Münster, Germany
- Department of Plant Biochemistry, Albrecht-von-Haller-Institute for Plant Sciences and Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences (GZMB), University of Göttingen, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
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van Es SW. In the Spotlight: Walk on the Wild Side. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2023; 175:e14103. [PMID: 38148245 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.14103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Sam W van Es
- Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
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Rieseberg TP, Dadras A, Bergschmidt LIN, Bierenbroodspot MJ, Fürst-Jansen JMR, Irisarri I, de Vries S, Darienko T, de Vries J. Divergent responses in desiccation experiments in two ecophysiologically different Zygnematophyceae. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2023; 175:e14056. [PMID: 38148198 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.14056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2023] [Revised: 10/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 12/28/2023]
Abstract
Water scarcity can be considered a major stressor on land, with desiccation being its most extreme form. Land plants have found two different solutions to this challenge: avoidance and tolerance. The closest algal relatives to land plants, the Zygnematophyceae, use the latter, and how this is realized is of great interest for our understanding of the conquest of land. Here, we worked with two representatives of the Zygnematophyceae, Zygnema circumcarinatum SAG 698-1b and Mesotaenium endlicherianum SAG 12.97, who differ in habitats and drought resilience. We challenged both algal species with severe desiccation in a laboratory setup until photosynthesis ceased, followed by a recovery period. We assessed their morphological, photophysiological, and transcriptomic responses. Our data pinpoint global differential gene expression patterns that speak of conserved responses, from calcium-mediated signaling to the adjustment of plastid biology, cell envelopes, and amino acid pathways, between Zygnematophyceae and land plants despite their strong ecophysiological divergence. The main difference between the two species appears to rest in a readjustment of the photobiology of Zygnema, while Mesotaenium experiences stress beyond a tipping point.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim P Rieseberg
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, University of Goettingen, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, Goettingen, Germany
| | - Armin Dadras
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, University of Goettingen, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, Goettingen, Germany
| | - Luisa I N Bergschmidt
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, University of Goettingen, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, Goettingen, Germany
| | - Maaike J Bierenbroodspot
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, University of Goettingen, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, Goettingen, Germany
| | - Janine M R Fürst-Jansen
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, University of Goettingen, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, Goettingen, Germany
| | - Iker Irisarri
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, University of Goettingen, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, Goettingen, Germany
- Section Phylogenomics, Centre for Molecular Biodiversity Research, Leibniz Institute for the Analysis of Biodiversity Change (LIB), Museum of Nature, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Sophie de Vries
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, University of Goettingen, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, Goettingen, Germany
| | - Tatyana Darienko
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, University of Goettingen, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, Goettingen, Germany
| | - Jan de Vries
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, University of Goettingen, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, Goettingen, Germany
- Campus Institute Data Science (CIDAS), University of Goettingen, Goettingen, Germany
- Goettingen Center for Molecular Biosciences (GZMB), Department of Applied Bioinformatics, University of Goettingen, Goettingen, Germany
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