Lactoferrin administration into the nostril alleviates murine allergic rhinitis and its mechanisms

Exploring the Role of Lactoferrin in Managing Allergic Airway Diseases among Children: Unrevealing a Potential Breakthrough

The prevalence of allergic diseases has dramatically increased among children in recent decades. These conditions significantly impact the quality of life of allergic children and their families. Lactoferrin, a multifunctional glycoprotein found in various biological fluids, is emerging as a promising immunomodulatory agent that can potentially alleviate allergic diseases in children. Lactoferrin's multifaceted properties make it a compelling candidate for managing these conditions. Firstly, lactoferrin exhibits potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities, which can mitigate the chronic inflammation characteristic of allergic diseases. Secondly, its iron-binding capabilities may help regulate the iron balance in allergic children, potentially influencing the severity of their symptoms. Lactoferrin also demonstrates antimicrobial properties, making it beneficial in preventing secondary infections often associated with respiratory allergies. Furthermore, its ability to modulate the immune response and regulate inflammatory pathways suggests its potential as an immune-balancing agent. This review of the current literature emphasises the need for further research to elucidate the precise roles of lactoferrin in allergic diseases. Harnessing the immunomodulatory potential of lactoferrin could provide a novel add-on approach to managing allergic diseases in children, offering hope for improved outcomes and an enhanced quality of life for paediatric patients and their families. As lactoferrin continues to capture the attention of researchers, its properties and diverse applications make it an intriguing subject of study with a rich history and a promising future.

Investigation of lactotransferrin messenger RNA expression levels as an anti-type 2 asthma biomarker

BACKGROUND

Lactotransferrin (LTF) has an immunomodulatory function, and its expression levels are associated with asthma susceptibility.

OBJECTIVES

We sought to investigate LTF messenger RNA (mRNA) expression levels in human bronchial epithelial cells (BECs) as an anti-type 2 (T2) asthma biomarker.

METHODS

Association analyses between LTF mRNA expression levels in BECs and asthma-related phenotypes were performed in the Severe Asthma Research Program (SARP) cross-sectional (n = 155) and longitudinal (n = 156) cohorts using a generalized linear model. Correlation analyses of mRNA expression levels between LTF and all other genes were performed by Spearman correlation.

RESULTS

Low LTF mRNA expression levels were associated with asthma susceptibility and severity (P < .025), retrospective and prospective asthma exacerbations, and low lung function (P < 8.3 × 10-3). Low LTF mRNA expression levels were associated with high airway T2 inflammation biomarkers (sputum eosinophils and fractional exhaled nitric oxide; P < 8.3 × 10-3) but were not associated with blood eosinophils or total serum IgE. LTF mRNA expression levels were negatively correlated with expression levels of TH2 or asthma-associated genes (POSTN, NOS2, and MUC5AC) and eosinophil-related genes (IL1RL1, CCL26, and IKZF2) and positively correlated with expression levels of TH1 and inflammation genes (IL12A, MUC5B, and CC16) and TH17-driven cytokines or chemokines for neutrophils (CXCL1, CXCL6, and CSF3) (P < 3.5 × 10-6).

CONCLUSIONS

Low LTF mRNA expression levels in BECs are associated with asthma susceptibility, severity, and exacerbations through upregulation of airway T2 inflammation. LTF is a potential anti-T2 biomarker, and its expression levels may help determine the balance of eosinophilic and neutrophilic asthma.

Unlocking the power of Lactoferrin: Exploring its role in early life and its preventive potential for adult chronic diseases

Nutrition during the early postnatal period exerts a profound impact on both infant development and later-life health. Breast milk, which contains lactoferrin, a dynamic protein, plays a crucial role in the growth of various biological systems and in preventing numerous chronic diseases. Based on the relationship between early infant development and chronic diseases later in life, this paper presents a review of the effects of lactoferrin in early life on neonates intestinal tract, immune system, nervous system, adipocyte development, and early intestinal microflora establishment, as well as the preventive and potential mechanisms of early postnatal lactoferrin against adult allergy, inflammatory bowel disease, depression, cancer, and obesity. Furthermore, we summarized the application status of lactoferrin in the early postnatal period and suggested directions for future research.

The Concentration of Lactoferrin in Breast Milk Correlates with Maternal Body Mass Index and Parity

Background: Lactoferrin (LF) is a multifunctional glycoprotein found in human milk and body fluids, which has been shown to play a vital role in regulating the immunity and supporting the intestinal health of infants. Aim: This study evaluated the association between maternal/parturient factors and LF concentration in the breast milk of Chinese mothers. Methods: 207 breast milk samples were collected from healthy mothers with in the first year of lactation. Maternal and parturient information was collected for these participants through questionnaires. The content of lactoferrin in breast milk was detected by liquid chromatography, and macronutrient concentration in breast milk was measured by human milk analyzer in only 109 samples. Results: Our findings demonstrated that the LF content was much higher within the first month of lactation than it was after that period (p < 0.05). When compared with normal and lean mothers, the LF content of obese mothers was considerably higher (p < 0.05). The parity and LF content showed a favorable correlation. The proportion of LF to total protein tended to decrease as lactation progressed. Protein, fat, dry matter, and energy content were significantly positively correlated with LF content (p < 0.001). Conclusion: Early breast milk tends to have a higher level of LF, and the change of LF concentration in breast milk is associated with the parity and body mass index of the mother.

Time to Kill and Time to Heal: The Multifaceted Role of Lactoferrin and Lactoferricin in Host Defense

Lactoferrin is an iron-binding glycoprotein present in most human exocrine fluids, particularly breast milk. Lactoferrin is also released from neutrophil granules, and its concentration increases rapidly at the site of inflammation. Immune cells of both the innate and the adaptive immune system express receptors for lactoferrin to modulate their functions in response to it. On the basis of these interactions, lactoferrin plays many roles in host defense, ranging from augmenting or calming inflammatory pathways to direct killing of pathogens. Complex biological activities of lactoferrin are determined by its ability to sequester iron and by its highly basic N-terminus, via which lactoferrin binds to a plethora of negatively charged surfaces of microorganisms and viruses, as well as to mammalian cells, both normal and cancerous. Proteolytic cleavage of lactoferrin in the digestive tract generates smaller peptides, such as N-terminally derived lactoferricin. Lactoferricin shares some of the properties of lactoferrin, but also exhibits unique characteristics and functions. In this review, we discuss the structure, functions, and potential therapeutic uses of lactoferrin, lactoferricin, and other lactoferrin-derived bioactive peptides in treating various infections and inflammatory conditions. Furthermore, we summarize clinical trials examining the effect of lactoferrin supplementation in disease treatment, with a special focus on its potential use in treating COVID-19.

Potential of Lactoferrin in the Treatment of Lung Diseases

Lactoferrin (LF) is a multifunctional iron-binding glycoprotein that exhibits a variety of properties, such as immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticancer, that can be used to treat numerous diseases. Lung diseases continue to be the leading cause of death and disability worldwide. Many of the therapies currently used to treat these diseases have limited efficacy or are associated with side effects. Therefore, there is a constant pursuit for new drugs and therapies, and LF is frequently considered a therapeutic agent and/or adjunct to drug-based therapies for the treatment of lung diseases. This article focuses on a review of the existing and most up-to-date literature on the contribution of the beneficial effects of LF on the treatment of lung diseases, including asthma, viral infections, cystic fibrosis, or lung cancer, among others. Although in vitro and in vivo studies indicate significant potency of LF in the treatment of the listed diseases, only in the case of respiratory tract infections do human studies seem to confirm them by demonstrating the effectiveness of LF in reducing episodes of illness and shortening the recovery period. For lung cancer, COVID-19 and sepsis, the reports are conflicting, and for other diseases, there is a paucity of human studies conclusively confirming the beneficial effects of LF.

Lactoferrin Ameliorates Ovalbumin-Induced Asthma in Mice through Reducing Dendritic-Cell-Derived Th2 Cell Responses

Asthma is a chronic respiratory disease with symptoms such as expiratory airflow narrowing and airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR). Millions of people suffer from asthma and are at risk of life-threatening conditions. Lactoferrin (LF) is a glycoprotein with multiple physiological functions, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antitumoral activities. LF has been shown to function in immunoregulatory activities in ovalbumin (OVA)-induced delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH) in mice. Hence, the purpose of this study was to investigate the roles of LF in AHR and the functions of dendritic cells (DCs) and Th2-related responses in asthma. Twenty 8-week-old male BALB/c mice were divided into normal control (NC), ovalbumin (OVA)-sensitized, and OVA-sensitized with low dose of LF (100 mg/kg) or high dose of LF (300 mg/kg) treatment groups. The mice were challenged by intranasal instillation with 5% OVA on the 21st to 27th day after the start of the sensitization period. The AHR, cytokines in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, and pulmonary histology of each mouse were measured. Serum OVA-specific IgE and IgG1 and OVA-specific splenocyte responses were further detected. The results showed that LF exhibited protective effects in ameliorating AHR, as well as lung inflammation and damage, in reducing the expression of Th2 cytokines and the secretion of allergen-specific antibodies, in influencing the functions of DCs, and in decreasing the level of Th2 immune responses in a BALB/c mouse model of OVA-induced allergic asthma. Importantly, we demonstrated that LF has practical application in reducing DC-induced Th2 cell responses in asthma. In conclusion, LF exhibits anti-inflammation and immunoregulation activities in OVA-induced allergic asthma. These results suggest that LF may act as a supplement to prevent asthma-induced lung injury and provide an additional agent for reducing asthma severity.

Pyrroloquinoline Quinone Administration Alleviates Allergic Airway Inflammation in Mice by Regulating the JAK-STAT Signaling Pathway

The current asthma therapies are inadequate for many patients with severe asthma. Pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ) is a naturally-occurring redox cofactor and nutrient that can exert a multitude of physiological effects, including anti-inflammatory and antioxidative effects. We sought to explore the effects of PQQ on allergic airway inflammation and reveal the underlying mechanisms. In vitro, the effects of PQQ on the secretion of epithelial-derived cytokines by house dust mite- (HDM-) incubated 16-HBE cells and on the differentiation potential of CD4+ T cells were investigated. In vivo, PQQ was administered to mice with ovalbumin- (OVA-) induced asthma, and lung pathology and inflammatory cell infiltration were assessed. The changes in T cell subsets and signal transducers and activators of transcription (STATs) were evaluated by flow cytometry. Pretreatment with PQQ significantly decreased HDM-stimulated thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) production in a dose-dependent manner in 16-HBE cells and inhibited Th2 cell differentiation in vitro. Treatment with PQQ significantly reduced bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) inflammatory cell counts in the OVA-induced mouse model. PQQ administration also changed the secretion of IFN-γ and IL-4 as well as the percentages of Th1, Th2, Th17, and Treg cells in the peripheral blood and lung tissues, along with inhibition the phosphorylation of STAT1, STAT3, and STAT6 while promoting that of STAT4 in allergic airway inflammation model mice. PQQ can alleviate allergic airway inflammation in mice by improving the immune microenvironment and regulating the JAK-STAT signaling pathway. Our findings suggest that PQQ has great potential as a novel therapeutic agent for inflammatory diseases, including asthma.

Lactoferrin: Cytokine Modulation and Application in Clinical Practice

Multiple properties of lactoferrin have been reported in the literature so far. Decades of in vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated the important antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and immunomodulating properties. It suggests the use of lactoferrin as an effective and safe option for the treatment of several common disorders. Herein, we show the applications of lactoferrin in clinical practice, highlighting its evidence-based capacities for the treatment of heterogeneous disorders, such as allergic, gastrointestinal, and respiratory diseases, and hematologic, oncologic, gynecologic, dermatologic, and dental disorders. Moreover, the widespread use of lactoferrin in neonatology is summarized here. As a result of its antiviral properties, lactoferrin has also been proposed as a valid option for the treatment for COVID-19 patients. Here, the uses of lactoferrin in clinical practice as a new, safe, and evidence-based treatment for many types of disorders are summarized.

Temporal Dynamics of T Helper Populations in the Proximal Small Intestine after Oral Bovine Lactoferrin Administration in BALB/c Mice

Bovine lactoferrin (bLf), a component of milk and a dietary supplement, modulates intestinal immunity at effector and inductor sites. Considering the regional difference in intestinal compartments and the dynamics of local cytokine-producing cells in the gut across time, the aim of this work was to characterize the effects of bLf on the proximal small intestine in a BALB/c murine model of oral administration. Male BALB/c mice were treated with oral bLf vs. saline control as mock by buccal deposition for 28 days. Intestinal secretions were obtained at different time points and cells were isolated from Peyer's patches (PP) and lamina propria (LP) of the proximal small intestine as representative inductor and effector sites, respectively. Total and specific anti-bLF IgA and IgM were determined by enzyme-immuno assay; the percentages of IgA+ and IgM+ plasma cells (PC) and cytokine-producing CD4+ T cells of PP and LP were analyzed by flow cytometry. We found that total and bLf-specific IgA and IgM levels were increased in the intestinal secretions of the bLf group in comparison to mock group and day 0. LP IgA+ PC and IgM+ PC presented an initial elevation on day 7 and day 21, respectively, followed by a decrease on day 28 in comparison to mock. Higher percentages of CD4+ T cells in LP were found in the bLf group. Cytokines-producing CD4+ T cells populations presented a pattern of increases and decreases in the bLf group in both LP and PP. Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β)+ CD4+ T cells showed higher percentages after bLf administration with a marked peak at day 21 in both LP and PP in comparison to mock-treated mice. Oral bLf exhibits complex immune properties in the proximal small intestine, where temporal monitoring of the inductor and effector compartments reveals patterns of rises and falls of different cell populations. Exceptionally, TGF-β+ CD4+ T cells show consistent higher numbers after bLf intervention across time. Our work suggests that isolated measurements do not show the complete picture of the modulatory effects of oral bLf in immunological sites as dynamic as the proximal small intestine.

Lactoferrin: A Glycoprotein Involved in Immunomodulation, Anticancer, and Antimicrobial Processes

Lactoferrin is an iron binding glycoprotein with multiple roles in the body. Its participation in apoptotic processes in cancer cells, its ability to modulate various reactions of the immune system, and its activity against a broad spectrum of pathogenic microorganisms, including respiratory viruses, have made it a protein of broad interest in pharmaceutical and food research and industry. In this review, we have focused on describing the most important functions of lactoferrin and the possible mechanisms of action that lead to its function.

COVID-19 during Pregnancy and Postpartum

As the COVID-19 pandemic intensified the global health crisis, the containment of SARS-CoV-2 infection in pregnancies, and the inherent risk of vertical transmission of virus from mother-to-fetus (or neonate) poses a major concern. Most COVID-19-Pregnancy patients showed mild to moderate COVID-19 pneumonia with no pregnancy loss and no congenital transmission of the virus; however, an increase in hypoxia-induced preterm deliveries was apparent. Also, the breastmilk of several mothers with COVID-19 tested negative for the virus. Taken together, the natural barrier function during pregnancy and postpartum seems to deter the SARS-CoV-2 transmission from mother-to-child. This clinical observation warrants to explore the maternal-fetal interface and identify the innate defense factors for prevention and control of COVID-19-Pregnancy. Lactoferrin (LF) is a potent antiviral iron-binding protein present in the maternal-fetal interface. In concert with immune co-factors, maternal-LF modulates chemokine release and lymphocyte migration and amplify host defense during pregnancy. LF levels during pregnancy may resolve hypertension via down-regulation of ACE2; consequently, may limit the membrane receptor access to SARS-CoV-2 for cellular entry. Furthermore, an LF-derived peptide (LRPVAA) has been shown to block ACE receptor activity in vitro. LF may also reduce viral docking and entry into host cells and limit the early phase of COVID-19 infection. An in-depth understanding of LF and other soluble mammalian milk-derived innate antiviral factors may provide insights to reduce co-morbidities and vertical transmission of SARS-CoV-2 infection and may lead to the development of effective nutraceutical supplements.

Bisphenol A Exacerbates Allergic Inflammation in an Ovalbumin-Induced Mouse Model of Allergic Rhinitis

Purpose

Bisphenol A (BPA) is found in many plastic products and is thus a common environmental endocrine disruptor. Plastic-related health problems, including allergic diseases, are attracting increasing attention. However, few experimental studies have explored the effect of BPA on allergic rhinitis (AR). We explore whether BPA was directly related to the allergic inflammation induced by ovalbumin (OVA) in AR mice.

Methods

We first constructed OVA-induced mouse model, and after BPA administration, we evaluated nasal symptoms and measured the serum OVA-specific IgE levels by ELISA. Th2 and Treg-related cytokines of nasal mucosa were measured by cytometric bead array. Th2 and Treg-specific transcription factor levels were assayed by PCR. The proportions of CD3⁺CD4⁺IL-4⁺Th2 and CD4⁺Helios⁺Foxp3⁺ T cells (Tregs) in spleen tissue were determined by flow cytometry.

Results

Compared to OVA-only-induced mice, BPA addition increased nasal symptoms and serum OVA-specific IgE levels. OVA and BPA coexposure significantly increased IL-4 and IL-13 protein levels compared to those after OVA exposure alone. BPA plus OVA tended to decrease the IL-10 protein levels compared to those after OVA alone. Coexposure to OVA and BPA significantly increased the GATA-3-encoding mRNA level, and decreased the levels of mRNAs encoding Foxp3 and Helios, compared to those after OVA exposure alone. BPA increased the Th2 cell proportion, and decreased that of Tregs, compared to the levels with OVA alone.

Conclusion

BPA exerted negative effects by exacerbating AR allergic symptoms, increasing serum OVA-specific IgE levels, and compromising Th2 and Treg responses.

Histological Chorioamnionitis Induces Differential Gene Expression in Human Cord Blood Mononuclear Leukocytes from Term Neonates

Histological chorioamnionitis (HCA) is an infection of fetal membranes and complicates 5.2% to 28.5% of all live births. HCA is associated with increased mortality and morbidity in both premature and term neonates. Exposure to HCA may have long-term consequences, including an increased risk for allergic disorders and asthma later in childhood, the mechanism(s) of which are still not yet well understood. The objective of this study was to determine the mRNA transcriptome of cord blood mononuclear leukocytes from term neonates to identify key genes and pathways involved in HCA. We found 366 differentially expressed probe IDs with exposure to HCA (198 upregulated, 168 downregulated). These transcriptomes included novel genes and pathways associated with exposure to HCA. The differential gene expression included key genes regulating inflammatory, immune, respiratory and neurological pathways, which may contribute to disorders in those pathways in neonates exposed to HCA. Our data may lead to understanding of the role of key genes and pathways identified on the long-term sequelae related to exposure to HCA, as well as to identifying potential markers and therapies to prevent HCA-associated complications.

Porcine lactoferrin-derived peptide LFP-20 modulates immune homoeostasis to defend lipopolysaccharide-triggered intestinal inflammation in mice

The performance of immune system is vital for defending the body from pathogens, and it plays a crucial role in health homoeostasis. In a previous study, we have shown that LFP-20, a twenty-amino acid antimicrobial peptide in the N terminus of porcine lactoferrin, modulated inflammatory response in colitis. Here, we further investigated the effects of LFP-20 on immune homoeostasis to elucidate the mechanism of its anti-inflammation action. A lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-triggered systemic inflammatory response mice model was established. On the basis of observed mucosal lesions and apoptosis in small intestine, we found increased macrophage and neutrophil infiltration in ileum after LPS stimulation. Expectedly, LFP-20 pre-treatment attenuated the LPS-mediated immune disorders in ileum. Moreover, the flow cytometry results indicated pre-treatment with LFP-20 sustained the balance of CD3+CD8+ T cells, B cells and natural killer cells in LPS-triggered immune disturbance. Simultaneously, we demonstrated LFP-20 modulated the secretion of both activated Th1-related IL-12p70, interferon-γ, TNF-α and Th2-related IL-4, IL-5 and IL-6. Furthermore, we found LFP-20 facilitated a balanced Th1 and Th2 response, which triggered cellular defence mechanisms and induced B cells to produce opsonising antibodies belonging to certain IgG subclasses to defend against LPS stimulation. Collectively, our study indicated pre-treatment with LFP-20 could defend against LPS-triggered systemic inflammatory response in mice via modulating immune homoeostasis.

Nonylphenol can aggravate allergic rhinitis in a murine model by regulating important Th cell subtypes and their associated cytokines

Nonylphenol (NP) is a widely distributed, toxic endocrine-disrupting chemical exhibiting estrogenic activity. However, its effect on allergic rhinitis (AR) remains unclear. In this study, the effects of NP on a murine model of AR were investigated. Mice were divided into ovalbumin (OVA), NP, and control groups. OVA was used for sensitization and challenge. Mice in the NP group were administered NP during the sensitization period. Allergic nasal symptoms and eosinophil counts in nasal mucosa were measured. Serum levels of OVA-specific IgE were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The mRNA levels of transcription factors of Th cells were determined with real-time polymerase chain reaction. Th cell subtypes and Treg numbers were counted with the aid of multi-color flow cytometry. Cytokine concentrations in nasal mucosa were determined using the cytometric bead array method. Subcutaneous injection of NP into mice exhibiting AR enhanced not only the nasal allergic symptoms, but also eosinophil infiltration and OVA-specific IgE. Moreover, NP upregulated IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, IL-9, IL-6 and IL-17, and downregulated IL-10, in the AR mouse model; IFN-γ and IL-23 were not affected. Transcription factors and Th cell percentages were evaluated to determine whether NP regulates Th cell subtypes in an AR mouse model. GATA3, PU.1, and RORγt levels were significantly increased, but FoxP3 and Helios were decreased. In addition, Th2, Th9, and Th17 subtype percentages significantly increased, and Treg cell percentages decreased, in NP administration groups; the percentage of Th1 subtypes was not affected. NP enhanced allergic inflammation in the AR mouse model through upregulation of Th2, Th9, and Th17 responses and negative regulation of Treg responses. These results suggest that NP may be trigger AR.

Human lactoferrin induces asthmatic symptoms in NC/Nga mice

Lactoferrin in commercial supplements is known to exert anti‐viral and anti‐allergic effects. However, this is the first study to evaluate the induction of allergic airway inflammation in NC/Nga mice. Human lactoferrin was administered intraperitoneally with aluminum oxide for sensitization. Five days later, lactoferrin was inoculated intranasally for 5 days, and then on the 12th day, the single inoculation of lactoferrin intranasally was performed as a challenge. On the 13th day, airway hypersensitivity was assessed (AHR), a bronchoalveolar fluid (BALF) cell analysis was conducted, serum IgE and serum lactoferrin‐specific IgG and IgE levels as well as the mRNA expression levels of cytokines and chemokines in the lung were measured, and a histopathological analysis of the lung was performed. Human lactoferrin increased AHR, the number of eosinophils in BALF, serum lactoferrin‐specific IgG levels, and the mRNA levels of IL‐13, eotaxin 1, and eotaxin 2. Moreover, the accumulation of inflammatory cells around the bronchus and the immunohistochemical localization of arginase I and human lactoferrin were detected. Collectively, these results indicate that human lactoferrin induced allergic airway inflammation in mice. Therefore, the commercial use of human lactoferrin in supplements warrants more intensive study.

Lactoferrin in a Context of Inflammation-Induced Pathology

Much progress has been achieved to elucidate the function of lactoferrin (LTF), an iron-binding glycoprotein, in the milieu of immune functionality. This review represents a unique examination of LTF toward its importance in physiologic homeostasis as related to development of disease-associated pathology. The immunomodulatory nature of this protein derives from its unique ability to "sense" the immune activation status of an organism and act accordingly. Underlying mechanisms are proposed whereby LTF controls disease states, thereby pinpointing regions of entry for LTF in maintenance of various physiological pathways to limit the magnitude of tissue damage. LTF is examined as a first line mediator in immune defense and response to pathogenic and non-pathogenic injury, as well as a molecule critical for control of oxidative cell function. Mechanisms of interaction of LTF with its receptors are examined, with a focus on protective effects via regulation of enzyme activities and reactive oxygen species production, immune deviation, and prevention of cell apoptosis. Indeed, LTF serves as a critical control point in physiologic homeostasis, functioning as a sensor of immunological performance related to pathology. Specific mediation of tissue pathophysiology is described for maintenance of intestinal integrity during endotoxemia, elicited airway inflammation due to allergens, and pulmonary damage during tuberculosis. Finally, the role of LTF to alter differentiation of adaptive immune function is examined, with specific recognition of its utility as a vaccine adjuvant to control subsequent lymphocytic reactivity. Overall, it is clear that while the ability of LTF to both sequester iron and to direct reactive oxygen intermediates is a major factor in lessening damage due to excessive inflammatory responses, further effects are apparent through direct control over development of higher order immune functions that regulate pathology due to insult and injury. This culminates in attenuation of pathological damage during inflammatory injury.

Neutralization of interleukin-9 ameliorates symptoms of allergic rhinitis by reducing Th2, Th9, and Th17 responses and increasing the Treg response in a murine model

A novel independent Th-cell subset, characterized by high expression of interleukin (IL)-9, has been recognized as the "Th9" subset. Although Th9 cells are important in many diseases, their contribution to allergic rhinitis (AR) remains unclear. We therefore first determined whether Th9 cells were present in a mouse model of AR. We then investigated the their involvement in the distribution of CD4+ T-cell subsets and the symptoms of AR by treating mice with anti-IL-9 antibodies (Abs). Anti-IL-9 Abs were administered intranasally during rechallenge of ovalbumin (OVA)-induced AR in BALB/c mice. We measured nasal rubbing motion, sneezing and eosinophils, as well as the Th1 (Th1 cell percentage, Ifn-γ mRNA/protein, T-bet mRNA), Th2 (Th2 cell percentage, Il-4 mRNA/protein, Gata3 mRNA), Th9 (Th9 cell percentages Il-9 mRNA/protein, PU.1 and Irf4 mRNA), Th17 (Th17 cell percentage, Il-17 mRNA/protein, Rorγt mRNA), and Treg (Treg cell percentage, Foxp3 mRNA) responses in the nasal mucosa. Treatment with anti-IL-9 Abs markedly reduced nasal rubbing, sneezing, eosinophil infiltration, and Th2, Th9, and Th17 responses, and increased the Treg response. Our findings emphasize the importance of IL-9/Th9 in the pathogenesis of AR, and suggest that anti-IL-9 Ab treatment may be an effective therapeutic strategy for AR.

Neutralization of interleukin-17 suppresses allergic rhinitis symptoms by downregulating Th2 and Th17 responses and upregulating the Treg response

Allergic rhinitis (AR) has long been considered to predominantly involve the actions of Th2 cells, with relatively small contributions from Th1 cells. In recent years, the discovery of Th17 and regulatory T (Treg) cells has rendered the Th1/Th2 balance paradigm more complex and expanded our understanding of the pathogenesis of AR. IL-17, a key cytokine produced by Th17 cells, is known to induce allergen-specific Th2 cell activation, eosinophil and neutrophil accumulation, and serum IgE production in asthma; all of these features may play important roles in AR. To the best of our knowledge, only a few studies have assessed the feasibility of using IL-17 antagonists to treat AR. Thus, the principal objectives of the present study were, first, to determine the status of Th17 and Treg cells in the nasal mucosa of a mouse model of AR, and, second, to investigate the effects of IL-17 on such cells and the therapeutic efficacy of anti-IL-17 antibodies (Abs) in the context of AR. Anti-IL-17 Abs were given intranasally during the re-challenge of BALB/c mice with ovalbumin (OVA)-induced AR. We measured the numbers of nasal rubbing motions and sneezes, eosinophil and neutrophil levels, Th1, Th2, Th17, and Treg parameters in the nasal mucosa. Anti-IL-17 Abs markedly reduced the number of nasal rubbing motions and sneezes, decreased eosinophil and neutrophil infiltration, reduced Th2 and Th17 responses, and increased the Treg response. Anti-IL-17 Ab treatment protects against AR. These results will improve our understanding of AR pathogenesis and may lead to the development of novel therapeutic approaches for management of the condition.

The Role of Lactoferrin in Gastrointestinal and Immune Development and Function: A Preclinical Perspective

The early postnatal period is a critical time for gastrointestinal (GI) and immune development. Neonates fed mother's milk have more rapid GI and immune development than fed-formula infants. In addition, clinical and epidemiologic data provide strong evidence that breastfeeding reduces the incidence and/or severity of infectious diseases. Lactoferrin is a 77 kDa, iron-binding glycoprotein that is present at high concentration in human milk compared with bovine milk and infant formula. It is a multifunctional protein that mediates many of the physiological processes in which breastfed infants have advantages over their formula-fed peers, including promoting GI and immune development, protection from infections, and improved cognitive development. Feeding bovine lactoferrin or recombinant human lactoferrin was well tolerated and stimulated intestinal cell proliferation and increased villus length and crypt depth in piglets. Lactoferrin also influenced both systemic and GI immune development by stimulating a balanced T-helper-1/T-helper-2 cytokine immune response. Further, there was a tendency for immune cells to secrete more anti-inflammatory cytokines in an unstimulated state, while being primed for a robust pro-inflammatory response when presented with a bacterial trigger in piglets fed lactoferrin. These findings support clinical studies demonstrating benefits of dietary lactoferrin in the prevention of infections, late onset sepsis, and necrotizing enterocolitis.

Molecular targets in arthritis and recent trends in nanotherapy

Due to its severity and increasing epidemiology, arthritis needs no description. There are various forms of arthritis most of which are disabling, very painful, and common. In spite of breakthroughs in the field of drug discovery, there is no cure for arthritis that can eliminate the disease permanently and ease the pain. The present review focuses on some of the most successful drugs in arthritis therapy and their side effects. Potential new targets in arthritis therapy such as interleukin-1β, interleukin-17A, tumor necrosis factor alpha, osteopontin, and several others have been discussed here, which can lead to refinement of current therapeutic modalities. Mechanisms for different forms of arthritis have been discussed along with the molecules that act as potential biomarkers for arthritis. Due to the difficulty in monitoring the disease progression to detect the advanced manifestations of the diseases, drug-induced cytotoxicity, and problems with drug delivery; nanoparticle therapy has gained the attention of the researchers. The unique properties of nanoparticles make them highly attractive for the design of novel therapeutics or diagnostic agents for arthritis. The review also focuses on the recent trends in nanoformulation development used for arthritis therapy. This review is, therefore, important because it describes the relevance and need for more arthritis research, it brings forth a critical discussion of successful drugs in arthritis and analyses the key molecular targets. The review also identifies several knowledge gaps in the published research so far along with the proposal of new ideas and future directions in arthritis therapy.

Immunomodulatory effects of lactoferrin

Lactoferrin (Lf) is an iron-binding glycoprotein of the transferrin family, which is expressed in most biological fluids with particularly high levels in mammalian milk. Its multiple activities lie in its capacity to bind iron and to interact with the molecular and cellular components of hosts and pathogens. Lf can bind and sequester lipopolysaccharides, thus preventing pro-inflammatory pathway activation, sepsis and tissue damages. Lf is also considered a cell-secreted mediator that bridges the innate and adaptive immune responses. In the recent years much has been learned about the mechanisms by which Lf exerts its activities. This review summarizes the recent advances in understanding the mechanisms underlying the multifunctional roles of Lf, and provides a future perspective on its potential prophylactic and therapeutic applications.