Including arm exercise during a cold water immersion recovery better assists restoration of sprint cycling performance

Mechanism involved of post-exercise cold water immersion: Blood redistribution and increase in energy expenditure during rewarming

Thermogenesis is well understood, but the relationships between cold water immersion (CWI), the post-CWI rewarming and the associated physiological changes are not. This study investigated muscle and systemic oxygenation, cardiorespiratory and hemodynamic responses, and gastrointestinal temperature during and after CWI. 21 healthy men completed randomly 2 protocols. Both protocols consisted of a 48 minutes heating cycling exercise followed by 3 recovery periods (R1-R3), but they differed in R2. R1 lasted 20 minutes in a passive semi-seated position on a physiotherapy table at ambient room temperature. Depending on the protocol, R2 lasted 15 minutes at either ambient condition (R2_AMB) or in a CWI condition at 10°C up to the iliac crest (R2_CWI). R3 lasted 40 minutes at AMB while favoring rewarming after R2_CWI. This was followed by 10 minutes of cycling. Compared to R2_AMB, R2_CWI ended at higherV ˙ O2 in the non-immersed body part due to thermogenesis (7.16(2.15) vs. 4.83(1.62) ml.min-1.kg-1) and lower femoral artery blood flow (475(165) vs. 704(257) ml.min-1) (p < 0.001). Only after CWI, R3 showed a progressive decrease in vastus and gastrocnemius medialis O2 saturation, significant after 34 minutes (p < 0.001). As blood flow did not differ from the AMB protocol, this indicated local thermogenesis in the immersed part of the body. After CWI, a lower gastrointestinal temperature on resumption of cycling compared to AMB (36.31(0.45) vs. 37.30(0.49) °C, p < 0.001) indicated incomplete muscle thermogenesis. In conclusion, the rewarming period after CWI was non-linear and metabolically costly. Immersion and rewarming should be considered as a continuum rather than separate events.

Functional Impact of Post-exercise Cooling and Heating on Recovery and Training Adaptations: Application to Resistance, Endurance, and Sprint Exercise

The application of post-exercise cooling (e.g., cold water immersion) and post-exercise heating has become a popular intervention which is assumed to increase functional recovery and may improve chronic training adaptations. However, the effectiveness of such post-exercise temperature manipulations remains uncertain. The aim of this comprehensive review was to analyze the effects of post-exercise cooling and post-exercise heating on neuromuscular function (maximal strength and power), fatigue resistance, exercise performance, and training adaptations. We focused on three exercise types (resistance, endurance and sprint exercises) and included studies investigating (1) the early recovery phase, (2) the late recovery phase, and (3) repeated application of the treatment. We identified that the primary benefit of cooling was in the early recovery phase (< 1 h post-exercise) in improving fatigue resistance in hot ambient conditions following endurance exercise and possibly enhancing the recovery of maximal strength following resistance exercise. The primary negative impact of cooling was with chronic exposure which impaired strength adaptations and decreased fatigue resistance following resistance training intervention (12 weeks and 4–12 weeks, respectively). In the early recovery phase, cooling could also impair sprint performance following sprint exercise and could possibly reduce neuromuscular function immediately after endurance exercise. Generally, no benefits of acute cooling were observed during the 24–72-h recovery period following resistance and endurance exercises, while it could have some benefits on the recovery of neuromuscular function during the 24–48-h recovery period following sprint exercise. Most studies indicated that chronic cooling does not affect endurance training adaptations following 4–6 week training intervention. We identified limited data employing heating as a recovery intervention, but some indications suggest promise in its application to endurance and sprint exercise.

Post-exercise Cold Water Immersion Does Not Improve Subsequent 4-km Cycling Time-Trial Compared With Passive and Active Recovery in Normothermia

Background: We investigated whether a brief cold water immersion between two cycling time trials (TT) improves the performance of the latter compared with passive and active recovery in normothermic conditions (~20°C). Methods: In Experiment 1 10 active participants (4 women) completed two 4-km TT (Ex1 and Ex2, each preceded by a 12 min moderate-intensity warm-up) separated by a 15 min recovery period consisting of: (a) passive rest (PAS) or (b) 5 min cold water immersion at 8°C (CWI-5). In Experiment 2, 13 different active males completed the same Ex1 and Ex2 bouts separated by a 15 min recovery consisting of: (a) PAS, (b) 10 min cold water immersion at 8°C (CWI-10) or (c) 15 min of moderate-intensity active recovery (ACT). Results: In both experiments, the time to complete the 4-km TT-s was not different (P > 0.05, ES = 0.1) among the trials neither in Ex1 (Experiment 1: PAS: 414 ± 39 s; CWI-5: 410 ± 39 s; Experiment 2: PAS: 402 ± 41 s; CWI-10: 404 ± 43 s; ACT: 407 ± 41 s) nor Ex2 (Experiment 1: PAS: 432 ± 43 s; CWI-5: 428 ± 47 s; Experiment 2: PAS: 418 ± 52 s; CWI-10: 416 ± 57 s; ACT: 421 ± 50 s). In addition, in all conditions, the time to complete the time trials was longer (P < 0.05, ES = 0.4) in Ex2 than Ex1. Core temperature was lower (P < 0.05) during the majority of Ex2 after CW-5 compared with passive rest (Experiment 1) and after CWI-10 compared with PAS and ACT (Experiment 2). Perceived exertion was also lower (P < 0.05) at mid-point of Ex2 after CWI-5 compared with PAS (Experiment 1) as well as overall lower during the CWI-10 compared with PAS and ACT conditions (Experiment 2). Conclusion: A post-exercise 5-10 min cold water immersion does not influence subsequent 4-km TT performance in normothermia, despite evoking reductions in thermal strain.

Effects of Various Recovery Strategies on Repeated Bouts of Simulated Intermittent Activity

Crowther, FA, Sealey, RM, Crowe, MJ, Edwards, AM, and Halson, SL. Effects of various recovery strategies on repeated bouts of simulated intermittent activity. J Strength Cond Res 33(7): 1781-1794, 2019-A large variety of recovery strategies are used between and after bouts of exercise to maximize performance and perceptual recovery, with limited conclusive evidence regarding the effectiveness of these strategies. The aim of this study was to compare 5 postexercise recovery strategies (cold water immersion, contrast water therapy, active recovery, a combined cold water immersion and active recovery, and a control condition) to determine which is most effective for the recovery of performance, perceptual, and flexibility measures during and after repeated bouts of simulated small-sided team sport demands. Fourteen recreationally active males (mean ± SD; age: 26 ± 6 years; height: 180 ± 5 cm; mass: 81 ± 9 kg) undertook repeated bouts of exercise, simulating a rugby sevens tournament day followed by the above listed recovery strategies (randomized, 1 per week). Perceptual, performance, and flexibility variables were measured immediately before, 5 minutes after all 3 exercise bouts, and at 75 minutes after the first 2 exercise bouts. Contrast water therapy was found to be superior to active at 75 minutes after bout 2 and 5 minutes after bout 3 for repeated-sprint ability and relative average power. The combined recovery strategy was superior to active for repeated-sprint ability at 5 minutes after bout 3; relative best power at 5 minutes after bout 2; total quality recovery before bout 2, 75 minutes after bout 2, and before bout 3; was superior to active for muscle soreness from 75 minutes after bout 1 and for the remainder of the day; and was superior to the control at 75 minutes after bout 1, 75 minutes after bout 2, and before bout 3. The active recovery was detrimental to total sprint time and relative average power at 75 minutes after bout 2 and 5 minutes after bout 3 in comparison with contrast water therapy and the control (not relative average power). Relative average power was decreased after active at 5 minutes after bout 2 in comparison with the combined recovery strategy and the control. Relative average power after cold water immersion was decreased at 75 minutes after bout 2 in comparison with the control and contrast water therapy. Total quality recovery was significantly reduced after active in comparison with the combined recovery strategy before bout 2, 75 minutes after bout 2, and before bout 3. Muscle soreness was also significantly increased after active recovery at 75 minutes after bout 1 and for the remainder of the day in comparison with the combined recovery strategy and was increased at 5 minutes after bout 3 in comparison with the control. Active recovery is not recommended because of the detrimental performance and perceptual results noted. As no recovery strategies were significantly better than the control condition for performance recovery and the combined recovery strategy is the only superior recovery strategy in comparison with the control for perceptual recovery (muscle soreness only), it is difficult to recommend a recovery strategy that should be used for both performance and perceptual recovery. Thus, based on the methodology and findings of this study unless already in use by athletes, no water immersion recovery strategies are recommended in preference to a control because of the resource-intensive (time and equipment) nature of water immersion recovery strategies.

Is active recovery during cold water immersion better than active or passive recovery in thermoneutral water for postrecovery high-intensity sprint interval performance?

High-intensity exercise is impaired by increased esophageal temperature (T_es) above 38 °C and/or decreased muscle temperature. We compared the effects of three 30-min recovery strategies following a first set of three 30-s Wingate tests (set 1), on a similar postrecovery set of Wingate tests (set 2). Recovery conditions were passive recovery in thermoneutral (34 °C) water (Passive-TN) and active recovery (underwater cycling; ∼33% maximum power) in thermoneutral (Active-TN) or cold (15 °C) water (Active-C). T_es rose for all conditions by the end of set 1 (∼1.0 °C). After recovery, T_es returned to baseline in both Active-C and Passive-TN but remained elevated in Active-TN (p < 0.05). At the end of set 2, T_es was lower in Active-C (37.2 °C) than both Passive-TN (38.1 °C) and Active-TN (38.8 °C) (p < 0.05). From set 1 to 2 mean power did not change with Passive-TN (+0.2%), increased with Active-TN (+2.4%; p < 0.05), and decreased with Active-C (-3.2%; p < 0.05). Heart rate was similar between conditions throughout, except at end-recovery; it was lower in Passive-TN (92 beats·min^-1) than both exercise conditions (Active-TN, 126 beats·min^-1; Active-C, 116 beats·min^-1) (p < 0.05). Although Active-C significantly reduced T_es, the best postrecovery performance occurred with Active-TN. Novelty An initial set of 3 Wingates increased T_es to ∼38 °C. Thirty minutes of Active-C was well tolerated, and decreased T_es and blood lactate to baseline values, but decreased subsequent Wingate performance.

Influence of recovery strategies upon performance and perceptions following fatiguing exercise: a randomized controlled trial

Background

Despite debate regarding their effectiveness, many different post-exercise recovery strategies are used by athletes. This study compared five post-exercise recovery strategies (cold water immersion, contrast water immersion, active recovery, a combined cold water immersion and active recovery and a control condition) to determine which is most effective for subsequent short-term performance and perceived recovery.

Methods

Thirty-four recreationally active males undertook a simulated team-game fatiguing circuit followed by the above recovery strategies (randomized, 1 per week). Prior to the fatiguing exercise, and at 1, 24 and 48 h post-exercise, perceptual, flexibility and performance measures were assessed.

Results

Contrast water immersion significantly enhanced perceptual recovery 1 h after fatiguing exercise in comparison to active and control recovery strategies. Cold water immersion and the combined recovery produced detrimental jump power performance at 1 h compared to the control and active recovery strategies. No recovery strategy was different to the control at 24 and 48 h for either perceptual or performance variables.

Conclusion

For short term perceptual recovery, contrast water therapy should be implemented and for short-term countermovement power performance an active or control recovery is desirable. At 24 and 48 h, no superior recovery strategy was detected.

Trial registration

Retrospectively registered; ISRCTN14415088; 5/11/2017.

Postexercise cold-water immersion improves intermittent high-intensity exercise performance in normothermia

A brief cold water immersion between 2 continuous high-intensity exercise bouts improves the performance of the latter compared with passive recovery in the heat. We investigated if this effect is apparent in normothermic conditions (∼19 °C), employing an intermittent high-intensity exercise designed to reflect the work performed at the high-intensity domain in team sports. Fifteen young active men completed 2 exhaustive cycling protocols (Ex1 and Ex2: 12 min at 85% ventilatory threshold (VT) and then an intermittent exercise alternating 30-s at 40% peak power (P_peak) and 30 s at 90% P_peak to exhaustion) separated by 15 min of (i) passive rest, (ii) 5-min cold-water immersion at 8 °C, and (iii) 10-min cold-water immersion at 8 °C. Core temperature, heart rate, rates of perceived exertion, and oxygen uptake kinetics were not different during Ex1 among conditions. Time to failure during the intermittent exercise was significantly (P < 0.05) longer during Ex2 following the 5- and 10-min cold-water immersions (7.2 ± 3.5 min and 7.3 ± 3.3 min, respectively) compared with passive rest (5.8 ± 3.1 min). Core temperature, heart rate, and rates of perceived exertion were significantly (P < 0.05) lower during most periods of Ex2 after both cold-water immersions compared with passive rest. The time constant of phase II oxygen uptake response during the 85% VT bout of Ex2 was not different among the 3 conditions. A postexercise, 5- to 10-min cold-water immersion increases subsequent intermittent high-intensity exercise compared with passive rest in normothermia due, at least in part, to reductions in core temperature, circulatory strain, and effort perception.